From strategic to engaged reading: Some reflections on the evolution of strategy-oriented reading instruction

The presence of strategy training elements in FL/L2 reading instruction has long been acknowledged. The nature of strategic reading and the effectiveness of strategy-oriented teaching have been the focus of many research reports and theoretical discussions. Although considerable attention was paid to the complexity of strategic reading and learning strategies, not enough consideration was devoted to the impact that theoretical perspectives exerted on the content and form of this kind of reading instruction. To fill this gap, the paper offers an overview of selected teaching models and techniques rooted in cognitive psychology and sociocultural perspectives. Drawing on the recent developments in reading education, the author of the article suggests that a traditional concept of “strategic reading” be extended and presents the advantages of developing engaged reading. The article winds up with some recommendations concerning teaching and researching reading.


Introduction
"But we discussed it only last week!Why haven't you learned it?"Almost every teacher knows the feeling of disappointment when the students seem to forget or misunderstand what he/she taught them in class.In other words, it often happens that the content of classes or methods applied by the teacher turn out inappropriate for the learners.Since the mid-1970s this practical problem has engaged the attention of theoreticians and researchers in areas such as developmental psychology and FL/L2 linguistics.Research efforts were involved in defining learning strategies and investigating good learner strategies.Discussions were conducted as to the methods of introducing "how to learn" elements into a FL/L2 classroom.For example, Rees-Miller (1993: 680) suggested that "learning strategies of successful learners can be codified and taught to poor language learners with a resulting increase in their learning efficiency".This automatic training perspective was opposed by Oxford and Leaver (1996), who emphasised a multilevel highly creative and individual nature of learning strategies, a view that promotes "teaching students to optimize their learning strategies for themselves as individuals" (Oxford and Leaver 1996: 228).
Although the voices concerning the nature of strategy instruction were divided, the importance of strategy training1 in FL education was acknowledged.Nowadays instructing students how to learn is considered a crucial element of all stages of FL teaching, i.e. materials development, lesson planning and evaluation.However, despite the overall positive approach to strategy instruction, teaching students how to learn can still present an enormous challenge to practitioners.My experience as a teacher trainer and a coursebook reviewer suggests that there are still educators who lack confidence when integrating the elements of strategy training with their FL instruction.FL coursebooks do not address this element of FL learning in a consistent manner and cannot be treated as reliable support to their users.The effectiveness of strategy training has been a popular topic of research studies.However, it often happens that reports of such studies lack exact information about the nature of strategy teaching conducted, which makes it difficult to include them in further comparative or replication studies.
The current article contributes to discussions that tackle the issue of strategy-oriented language instruction (e.g.Chodkiewicz 2019).It offers a brief overview of L2/FL research studies and theoretical perspectives that have informed strategy-oriented language instruction over the last four decades.To elucidate the link between learning strategies and the language com-ponent being taught, examples related to reading skills are provided.The author hopes that by underling a complex character of strategy instruction the paper will raise readers' awareness about real goals of different versions of strategy training and will encourage them to examine their teaching and research practices.

How it all started: Good and poor learner studies
Research into the learning process started four decades ago with an attempt to examine the way a successful learner learns (e.g.Stern 1975, Rubin 1975, Naiman et al. 1978).The studies resulted in describing the features that characterise good language learning (e.g.Rubin 1981, Holec 1987, Ellis and Sinclair 1989, Oxford 1989, Cohen 1991); they also gave rise to taxonomies classifying learning strategies 2 into various groups and subgroups, such as the ones by Rubin (1975) or Oxford (1990).The results of "less successful learner studies" (e.g.Vann and Abraham 1990) pointed to the possibility of designing training programs that could teach less efficient learners the strategies used by more successful learners.The observations that less efficient students do use learning strategies and that they can report on their learning processes provided a starting point for this kind of training.
Similar research was conducted in relation to reading in a FL/L2.The studies revealed certain differences in strategies 2 The SLA literature and research sometimes make a distinction between learner strategies and learning strategies.For example, Chamot and O'Malley (1994) use the term "learner strategies" to refer to strategies developed by learners on their own while attempting to solve language problems.Thus, according to this definition, studies investigating characteristics of good and poor language learners would focus on learner strategies.Learning strategies, on the other hand, are strategies that learners are taught as part of instruction.Very often, however, these terms are used interchangeably.In this paper, the term "learning strategies" will be used to refer to both learning strategies and learner strategies.
applied by successful and unsuccessful second/foreign language readers (see Table 1).(1977) The readers differed in the following aspects of reading: treating unimportant words, remembering the meaning of the text, the use of context, self-concepts as readers introspective think-aloud Devine (1988) The following reading models were identified: sound-, word-, and meaning-centred; a relationship between the reading models of the learners and the success in reading comprehension was found interviews to identify readers' internalised models of the reading process Block (1986) The readers differed in the following aspects of reading: focus on the text vs focus on one's feelings, awareness of text structure, integrating information, monitoring one's understanding introspective think-aloud Cotterall (1991) The following features of a poor reader were identified: the use of bottom-up strategies, reluctance to draw on one's background knowledge observation of the reader's behaviour Haastrup (1991) L2 proficiency is a crucial factor in lexical inferencing; differences in the use of top-down and bottom-up text clues were found producing the computer "reading maps" by means of introspective and retrospective think-aloud Kusiak (2001) Good readers valued bottomup strategies as less effective and demonstrated more effective self-evaluation skills a questionnaire Zhang (2001) L2 proficiency is a crucial factor in reading comprehension; differences in the use of monitoring and inferencing were found a guided interview The findings point to the following characteristics of successful readers: focus on meaning rather than decoding processes, the ability to integrate linguistic clues of a text with background knowledge, skilful integration of top-down and bottom-up clues from the text, greater awareness of strategies used in reading as well as more frequent and more effective monitoring skills.Additionally, the studies emphasise L2/FL proficiency as an important factor discriminating between more and less successful readers.
The instruction based on "good reader" knowledge and skills brought promising results.The following positive outcomes were observed: encouraging students to apply "appropriate" reading strategies (e.g.Fung et al. 2003), sensitising learners to the facilitating role of top-down strategies (e.g.Salataci and Akyel 2002), improving learners' self-evaluation skills (e.g.Kusiak 2001), raising readers' strategy awareness (e.g. Brown et al. 1996, Dabarera et al. 2014).
To sum up, "good reader" studies have provided useful directions as to the content of strategy-oriented instruction, i.e. what should be taught.However, teaching is organised around "what to teach" and "how to teach" elements.The latter one, i.e. methods of instruction, has been shaped by the theoretical trends that are presented in detail below.

3.
Strategy training and theoretical perspectives

Learning strategies in the cognitive theory of learning
According to McLaughlin (1990), and O'Malley and Chamot (1990), it is cognitive theories of learning that offer the most comprehensive theoretical account for language learning strategies.The scholars argue that the results of learning strategy studies, especially the ones that demonstrate that learners demonstrate a certain level of awareness of their learning processes, cannot be explained by the assumption which holds that language acquisition is an unconscious implicit process.Chamot and O'Malley (1994: 376) state: Cognitive models of learning indicate that learners are mentally active during the learning process as they select information from their environment, organise it, relate it to their prior knowledge, decide what needs to be remembered, use the information appropriately, and reflect on the level of success of their learning efforts.
This view of learning sees learning strategies as part of the "intricate set of mental processes", "a complex cognitive skill" (Chamot 1994: 324), which FL/L2 acquisition definitely involves.Anderson's (1983Anderson's ( , 1985) ) cognitive theory of learning and the information-processing approach proposed by McLaughlin et al. (1983) provide further arguments in this discussion.The information-processing model suggested by McLaughlin (1990) sees the learner as an active organiser of incoming information; the learner selects and processes input first in a controlled manner, then develops it through subsequent automatic processes.Con-trolled processes are compared to the" stepping stones" in the development of automatic processes.
The conceptual dichotomy, declarative vs. procedural knowledge, lends itself to describing learning strategies within the field of the cognitive theory.Anderson (1983Anderson ( , 1985) ) claims that information is stored in long-term memory as either declarative knowledge or procedural knowledge.Declarative knowledge is "what" we know, facts which are stored and interconnected in memory as schemata.Procedural knowledge is "how to do" knowledge, consisting of processes and skills.In Anderson's view (1983Anderson's view ( , 1985) ) explicit controlled declarative knowledge can be transformed into automatic implicit procedural knowledge.Various practice activities may facilitate the process of proceduralising.Explicit discussions about the strategies may facilitate the learner's control in strategy use, especially at the early stages of learning (e.g.Derry 1990).Repeating the use of the same strategy can help the learner to use it more automatically.
Chamot and O'Malley (1994) distinguish two "roads" that the learner can take to facilitate the process of proceduralising learning strategies.Learners can take the "high road" to learning, in which they recognise similarities between familiar tasks and new tasks, and they are able to apply strategies that they have already applied in the past.Taking the "low road" means not remembering the previous use and viewing the strategy as a new one, which makes the student relearn the strategy.Linking the strategy use from the past to new learning situations may be facilitated by verbalising the strategy use, which can equip learners with the metacognition knowledge necessary to recognise familiar situations and strategies in future learning (Paris andWinograd 1990, Pressley et al. 1992).
To sum up, the cognitive view of learning has proved to be a strong theoretical perspective that can account for learning strategies in relation to all kinds of learning, also to FL/L2 acquisition.The theory offers practical implications for instruction -it promotes focus on learning strategies as part of language training.Strategy training inspired by cognitive perspectives is discussed in more detail below.

Strategy training -a cognitive perspective
A striking finding of "good learner" research was that learners were able to report on mental processes that they had applied in their efforts to learn a FL/L2.This information gave rise to the reconsideration of the role of consciousness in FL/L2 learning.
Oxford and Leaver (1996, adapted from Schmidt 1994) distinguish four aspects of consciousness: awareness, attention, intentionality and control.They also introduce an aspect in which no element of consciousness is present (see Table 2).Blind training does not require learners' strategic consciousness (Brown et al. 1986).Students are instructed to perform a task, e.g."read the text and complete the table with the information taken from the text".However, no explanation is given why this way of reading is appropriate; without this knowledge learners may not be prepared to transfer the strategies they have practised to new reading situations.
Awareness of language learning strategies (the second aspect of consciousness in Table 2) may be developed by means of various strategy assessment tasks, such as surveys, think-aloud protocols and diaries (Oxford and Leaver 1996).As regards directing learners' attention to their own and other students' strategies, a number of activities have been recommended.Interactive lectures (with whole-group brainstorming activities) and workshops require learners to reflect on their learning experiences; comparing and discussing strategies applied in similar situations, identifying a personal repertoire of strategies and viewing textbooks in search for strategy use can heighten this aspect of consciousness.
Intentionality, another aspect of consciousness, is defined as commitment and a key part of motivation and is believed to take place when learners develop certain attitudes and opinions concerning learning strategies (Oxford and Leaver 1996).The following beliefs have been considered conducive to developing learning strategies (Oxford and Shearin 1994): − viewing certain strategies as helpful in particular language situations, − considering the strategy useful in other tasks, − viewing the effort put to using the strategy as worthwhile, and hoping that it will bring benefits in further learning, − perceiving oneself as a self-efficacious learner, not "a mere pawn of the situation or the teacher" (Oxford and Leaver 1996: 234), − being interested in the materials and tasks involving the strategy, − showing positive attitudes to the language one studies, − believing that one can learn from others, and also obtain support from them.
Learners' attitudes have been strongly emphasised in language learning theory and research.According to Bialystok (1981), the use of strategies seems to be related primarily to learners' attitudes and not to their language learning aptitude.In the same vein, Oxford and Leaver (1996) (Brown et al. 1986).In contrast to blind training, informed instruction shows learners what strategies they should use in particular situations and why such strategies are useful.The main objective of this kind of instruction is "to help students recognize the need to adapt their study activities to the demands of the task at hand, the nature of the material, and their personal preferences and abilities" (Brown et al. 1986: 67).With regard to teaching reading, it can involve e.g.sensitising learners to basic reading strategies, simple rules of text structure and the significance of background knowledge, the aim of which is to increase learners' self-awareness, and prepare them for the next stage in strategy development -effective self-regulation, i.e. the ability to monitor and check one's own cognitive actions in reading.
To become autonomous and successful readers, learners need to acquire the ability to control their strategy use, which involves evaluating the effectiveness of their learning and transferring the strategies to similar learning tasks.These abilities are taught in "strategy-plus-control" instruction (Oxford and Leaver 1996) or "self-controlled" training (Brown et al. 1986).This kind of teaching not only tells learners what strategies to use (the aim of blind training) and how and why to apply them (the objective of informed training); it also provides learners with explicit instruction about planning, monitoring, and regulating the use of the strategies.In other words, cognitive components of blind and informed training are enriched with tasks enhancing metacognitive strategies.
In reading pedagogy several instructional "strategy-plus-control" models have been developed  (Kidd and Marquardson 1994).The self-control stage in this instruction is implemented by encouraging learners to evaluate their work by means of learning logs and checklists.The two methods are contentbased training programs designed to help students to transfer from language-based programs to content classes with English used as a first language.Both programs were found successful in developing students' content knowledge, language proficiency and learning strategy use.The CALLA proved successful also in teaching foreign languages, e.g.developing FL reading comprehension as demonstrated by Cubukcu (2008), and Nejad and Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki (2015).
To sum up, instruction inspired by cognitive perspectives aims at engaging students in tasks which require reflecting on one's mental processes.The practice showed that despite its undeniable advantages, the cognitive perspective has some weak-nesses that should be taken into consideration in both research and teaching instruction.It seems that this approach does not shed enough light on affective factors that accompany students in their learning endeavours.Another weakness is the fact that it ignores social factors that influence the process of learning, such as a learning context and interaction between the teacher and learners, and learners themselves.It is crucial to note that self-reflection tasks recommended by the cognitive strategy training such as diaries and logs were not found sufficient in enhancing deeper levels of readers' consciousness.It was interactive classroom techniques that proved indispensable in fostering all the aspects of consciousness.This observation emphasises the need of introducing elements of social interaction into strategy instruction, which is the focus of the next section of the paper.

Strategy training -a social turn
"Cognitivism is not based on the works of a single theorist or a unified group of theorists.Rather, it is informed by several theorists' contributions and is quite multifaceted" (Yilmaz 2011(Yilmaz : 2005)).In strategy training, the individual cognitive trend that derived from information processing theories were supplemented with the sociocultural trend based on Vygotsky's works.Several models of teaching inspired by sociocultural perspectives applied in reading education are presented below.

Reciprocal teaching
Reciprocal teaching (Palincsar and Brown 1986) is based on information processing theory and Vygotsky's (1978) theory.Vygotsky's ideas about the social nature of learning and the learner's zone of proximal development promote learning in groups with a more competent peer or adult guidance by providing an "instructional scaffold" that is later removed.Reciprocal teaching is defined as an instructional activity in the form of a dialogue happening between the teacher and students about the text read in class.
It can be a useful activity in strategy instruction.For example, in Cotterall's (1991) study reciprocal teaching involved training and practice in the use of the following reading strategies: clarifying, identifying the main idea, summarising, and predicting.The training involved the following steps: 1.The teacher and the learners predict the likely content of the text based on the title; then the learners silently read the first paragraph of the text.2. One of the learners initiates and leads a group discussion about the paragraph; if the class is not accustomed with this technique, the teacher is usually the first leader.3. The leader finds and states the main idea of that paragraph.4. The leader summarises the content of the paragraph.5.The leader predicts the likely content of the next paragraph of the text.6.The discussion is taken over by another student who leads a similar discussion about another paragraph of the text.
At each stage of this process the leader seeks feedback from the class and provides clarification of any difficulties he/she encounters while reading the paragraph.
Reciprocal teaching can be successful in raising the learners' awareness of their reading strategies.The interactive dialogue among the learners allows them to observe the reading strategies that they use and compare them with those of other readers.Reciprocal teaching is particularly beneficial for weaker readers; it allows them to become aware of breakdowns in their understanding and helps them to deal with reading difficulties almost immediately after they have been noticed.For the teacher, reciprocal teaching offers an opportunity to observe learners' reading behaviours, allowing the teacher to diagnose the students' reading problems.It also enables the instructor to analyse the learners' needs, test reading materials and design a reading program.

Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)
Contemporary strategy instruction has taken a social turn.Collaborative learning perspectives recommend developing peer interaction, e.g. by involving students in group discussions about reading strategies (Hennessey 1999).According to Johnson and Johnson (2019: 4): Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals.When cooperating, individuals work to achieve outcomes that benefit themselves and all other group members.Cooperative learning exists when small groups of students work to enhance their own and their group mates' learning.
Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR), developed by Klingner andVaughn (1996, 1998), is an example of training which has roots in reciprocal teaching (Palincsar and Brown 1986) and cooperative learning (Johnson and Johnson 1987).CSR consists of four stages that students go through in small cooperative groups before, during, and after reading a text.These stages are: (a) preview (before reading the text), (b) click and clunk (during reading particular paragraphs of the text), (c) get the gist (during reading particular paragraphs of the text), and (d) wrap up (after reading the text).The preview step and wrap up steps are applied once each.The clink/clunk and get the gist stages are applied multiple times depending on the number of paragraphs.At the preview stage, learners are taught pre-reading strategies, such as activating their background knowledge, predicting the content of the text.At the clink/clunk step, students learn how to monitor their reading, identify the problems they encounter in reading and use compensation strategies.At the get the gist stage, readers practice the strategy of understanding the main ideas of paragraphs and finally the gist of the whole text.At the last stage, called wrap up, students generate questions about the text they have read and review the text.The following materials are used to facilitate the practice of the abovementioned strategies: clunk cards with fix-up strategies and learning logs that help participants to reflect on their individual reading.To facilitate cooperation, learners are assigned roles in their groups, e.g.Leader (who prompts the group what to do next), Clunk Expert, Gist Expert and Announcer (who calls on group members to read a passage or share an opinion).
CSR has been found effective in both L2 and FL instruction.A significant increase in vocabulary was observed in ESL science classes by Klingner and Vaughn (2000).Koukourikou et al. (2018) as well Olaya and González-Gonzálezound (2020) concluded that CSR could be successful in developing reading performance of FL students.There are some other advantages of this kind of teaching underlined by both researchers and teachers.It provides opportunities for students to improve their social skills, such as leadership, decision making, communication and individual accountability, the features that facilitate cooperative learning in a language classroom (e.g.Bremer et al. 2002).Additionally, collaborative techniques help students to develop "metacognitive" discourse they use in class; talking about learning can provoke in learners' conceptual conflict, which in turn can assist them in the construction and refinement of their concepts and attitudes (Schraw and Moshman 1995).

The engagement model of reading comprehension development
The echo of collaborative learning perspectives is also present in the engagement model of reading comprehension development suggested by Guthrie and Klauda (2016).The model draws on several theories of academic motivation, social cognitive theory (Bandura 2006) and expectancy-value theory (Eccles and Wigfield 2002).In this model, reading comprehension is viewed as the consequence of an extended amount of engaged reading, which is defined as motivated, strategic, knowledge driven, and socially interactive.The scholars ask a crucial question: "in view of the cognitive complexity of reading comprehension: How can teachers and schools motivate students to become truly engaged readers?" (Taboada Barber and Klauda 2020: 27).Taboada Barber and Klauda (2020: 28) explain that: "strengthening reading comprehension means instructional attention not only to its multiple cognitive processes, but also to the multiple motivation and engagement processes driving students' will to derive meaning from text".The main aim is "to explicate instructional practices and policies that facilitate sustained literacy engagement as an individual characteristic, rather than shortlived instructional engagement in classroom activities" (Taboada Barber and Klauda 2020: 28).As a summary of the interrelated dimensions of the model, the acronym SMILE has been suggested.The letters stand for the following aspects of reading practice: S for sharing (i.e. the social dimension; M for me, i.e. the self-efficacy dimension; I for importance, i.e. the value dimension; L for liking, i.e. the intrinsic dimension; and E for engagement, which comes last as a result of each of the preceding dimensions.Taboada Barber and Klauda (2020) propose a number of ideas that should be considered by school administrators and teachers, such as gaining knowledge of students' reading preferences and interests, evaluating reading practices in terms of motivation support, and reading achievement, supporting student intrinsic motivation for reading as a long-term characteristic.The model has been found effective in fostering reading comprehension of English learners and native English speakers, e.g.Taboada Barber et al. (2015Barber et al. ( , 2018)).It has also inspired teachers in a Polish context, e.g.Kusiak-Pisowacka (2023).

Summary
To recap, strategy instruction has evolved.Inspired by cognitive perspectives, it focussed on reading strategies development, raising learner awareness, intentionality and control over the strategies used.The main goal was to create a strategic reader who can read independently of teacher guidance.Contemporary strategy training, influenced by sociocultural perspectives, have enriched the cognitive perspective with other educational goals.Nowadays a more complex integrated approach is proposed.Attention is put not only on fostering cognitive abilities, but also raising reader motivation, self-efficacy, and engagement.Cooperation between readers is promoted, which facilitates development of metacognitive discourse and consequently learners' metacognition knowledge and regulation skills.

Conclusions: Towards engaged reading instruction
It that a more holistic instruction should be promoted both in terms of the content and form of instruction.To emphasise this more integrated approach to reading instruction, in the concluding section the term "engaged reading" (instead of "strategic reading") will be used.

Teaching recommendations
As for methods of instruction, a combination of individualistic learning with collaborative learning can be the most promising.
The first type of learning can enable learners to focus on their individual style of reading and develop deeper levels of consciousness, i.e. awareness, attention, intentionality, and control (as specified by Oxford and Leaver 1996).Collaborative elements of instruction, which promotes students talking about their individual strategies, can support learners in looking at their own strategies from a distance and consequently enhance their understanding of themselves as learners.
In reading programs more focus should be put on affective factors such as reading motivation and engagement (as proposed by Taboada Barber and Klauda (2020).Personalising teaching will be beneficial in raising learner intrinsic motivation and genuine involvement in reading.It is crucial that activities encourage learners to employ and improve strategies best for them as individuals; endowing all students with the same ways of approaching the text may not bring expected results.Learners should be given more freedom in terms of the choice of reading materials and as a result practice the type of reading most useful for them.
Reading practice should not be limited to the classroom.Reading as a social activity can be practiced by inviting students to organise reading clubs and blogs; learners can build platforms for sharing opinions about various texts and comparing reading experiences.By going beyond the classroom FL learners can realise that reading in a foreign language is no longer a passive activity (limited to reading comprehension tasks performed in class), nor is it an ordinary language exercise (albeit important for their general foreign language competence) but a useful skill that can enable them to function more actively in a contemporary world.
Reading materials should not be restricted to traditional coursebook texts.It is important that learners are subjected to authentic texts including internet materials, which will foster their digital skills, critical reading skills and the ability to select, filter and evaluate reading sources.In the contemporary digitalised world developing effective strategies of coping with multiple texts (cf.Britt et al. 2013) seems of great importance.
In an engaged reading classroom, the teacher plays multiple roles.The teacher can assist learners in various aspects of reading development: giving individual advice, selection of materials, modelling the use of strategies, evaluating learners' progress, facilitating contact with other readers, monitoring group work discussions.It seems useful to keep in mind that teachers are also learners; by sharing their own personal learning experiences with their students instructors can encourage learners to reveal information about how they learn, what problems they encounter and what motivates them.Talking about one's reading will improve learners' metalanguage -the language used to talk about learning a foreign language.It may lead to the increase in learner reflection and more informed decisions concerning one's learning.
Last but not least, coursebook authors, syllabus designers and teachers should treat teaching reading as long term instruction that accompanies the process of foreign language learning.The application of learning strategies activities as sporadic irregular exercises disconnected from language practice can result in students ignoring this element of learning a foreign language.

Research recommendations
There is a growing need for more research into the role of motivation in teaching reading; integrated efforts of motivation experts and reading experts can bring very encouraging outcomes.It can be also useful to explore the specificity of reading instruction in CLIL and ESP programs; the integration of language and content teaching may call for a different approach to fostering learners' engagement, motivation and reading skills.
It is important that researchers describe in more detail the reading training to which they expose the subjects of their studies.The use of vague names such as: "multiple strategy instruction" or "explicit training" cannot be considered sufficient; this suggestion seems important particularly for future replication studies.
To conclude, instructing FL/L2 learners about how to learn has become a stable element in language education.The author of the present paper hopes that this article will enable readers to systematise their knowledge about this form of teaching and will encourage them to examine their own practices as FL teachers and researchers.
. The two most popular models are the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach -CALLA (Chamot and O'Malley 1986) and the Forsee Approach -Communication, Cognitive Academic Language Development and Content Instruction in the Classroom 3

Table 2
Aspects of consciousness implemented in strategy training(Oxford and Leaver 1996, adapted from Schmidt 1994) tional in using strategies.The final stage entails training learners how to control their strategy use.In relation to this taxonomy, several types of strategy training have been distinguished corresponding to the above-described aspects of consciousness (see Table2).These are blind training, informed training and self-control training.
Oxford and Shearin 1994, Oxford and Leaver 1996, Wang et al. 2009, Piechurska-Kuciel 2016)g and improving learning strategies.Numerous researchers (e.g.Oxford and Shearin 1994, Oxford and Leaver 1996, Wang et al. 2009, Piechurska-Kuciel 2016)emphasise the role of beliefs in FL learning.Learners should be given opportunities to present and discuss their attitudes with other learners.Interactive lectures, strategy diary discussions and individual counselling can stimulate students' intentionality.It is important for teachers not to criticise or ridicule the students' beliefs, however strange they may seem.Increasing learners' strategic intentionality is the main goal of informed strategy instruction, also called cognitive training with awareness