Academic Scientific JournalsA classroom-based physical activity intervention for adolescents: Is there an effect on self-efficacy, physical activity, and on-task behavior?
Keywords:
exercise, adolescents, self-efficacy, academics, on-task behaviorAbstract
Background
Classroom-based physical activity is a newly explored avenue for providing physical activity opportunities to children within the school, but it is one that is showing academic gains in areas such as on-task behavior. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of pedal desks placed in high school classrooms. Three main objectives were examined: 1) the possible increase in physical activity self-efficacy among high school students in the classroom, 2) the effectiveness of pedal desks on increased physical activity among high school students, and 3) the impact of pedal desks on increasing classroom on-task behavior.
Participants and procedure
Participants included 114 high school students in a traditional high school setting. All of the students were enrolled in two Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) teachers’ classrooms. The design was quasi-experimental. Two teachers and their respective classes were randomly assigned to a treatment or control group. The study included a baseline and 2 waves. Researchers gathered demographic information of students, as well as pre- and post-data on self-efficacy and physical activity participation. On-task behavior of students was also recorded daily by researchers via momentary time sampling.
Results
The results indicated significance for self-efficacy confidence but not barriers to physical activity participation. When examining whether self-efficacy could be connected to student heart rate, no significance was found. However, treatment students did improve their mean heart rates from baseline to treatment. This increase was significantly greater when compared to the control group.
Conclusions
This study indicates that pedal desks may be one means for feasibly increasing light physical activity during the school day. This study suggests that self-efficacy for exercise can be increased and that light intensity physical activity levels may be raised through placing pedal desks in a high school classroom. Limitations are discussed.
Downloads
References
Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. Behaviour, 49, 227–266. https:// doi.org/10.1163/156853974X00534.
Annesi, J. J., Westcott, W. L., Faigenbaum, A. D., & Unruh, J. L. (2005). Effects of a 12-week physical activity protocol delivered by YMCA after-school counselors (Youth Fit for Life) on fitness and selfefficacy changes in 5-12-year-old boys and girls. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76, 468–476. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2005.10599320.
Ardoy, D. N., Fernández‐Rodríguez, J. M., Jiménez‐ Pavón, D., Castillo, R., Ruiz, J. R., & Ortega, F. B. (2014). A physical education trial improves adolescents’ cognitive performance and academic achievement: the EDUFIT study. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24, e52–e61. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12093.
Babey, S. H., Wu, S., & Cohen, D. (2014). How can schools help youth increase physical activity? An economic analysis comparing school-based programs. Preventive Medicine, 69, 55–60. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.10.013.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033- 295X.84.2.191.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175–1184. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.9.1175.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1.
Bartholomew, J. B., & Jowers, E. M. (2011). Physically active academic lessons in elementary children. Preventive Medicine, 52, 51–54. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.017.
Beets, M. W., Pitetti, K. H., & Forlaw, L. (2007). The role of self-efficacy and referent specific social support in promoting rural adolescent girls’ physical activity. American Journal of Health Behavior, 31, 227–237. https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.31.3.1.
Beets, M. W., Cardinal, B. J., & Alderman, B. L. (2010). Parental social support and the physical activityrelated behaviors of youth: a review. Health Education & Behavior, 37, 621–644. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1090198110363884.
Benzing, V., Heinks, T., Eggenberger, N., & Schmidt, M. (2016). Acute cognitively engaging exergamebased physical activity enhances executive functions in adolescents. PloS One, 11, e0167501. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167501.
Booth, J. N., Leary, S. D., Johnson, C., Ness, A. R., Tomporowski, P. D., Boyle, J. M., & Reilly, J. J. (2013). Associations between objectively measured physical activity and academic attainment in adolescents from a UK cohort. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48, 265–270. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2013-092334.
Brown, R., Waring, R., & Donkaewbua, S. (2008). Incidental vocabulary acquisition from reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20, 136–163.
Caldas, S. J., & Reilly, M. S. (2019). The mediating influence of physical activity levels on 3rd-grade academic achievement. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 33, 271–289. https://doi.org/10.108 0/02568543.2019.1577775.
Caldwell, T., & Ratliffe, T. (2014). Investigation of intensity levels during video classroom exercise sessions. Physical Educator, 71, 473–490.
Carroll, A., Gordon, K., Haynes, M., & Houghton, S. (2013). Goal setting and self-efficacy among delinquent, at-risk and not at-risk adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 431–443. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10964-012-9799-y.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015). How much physical activity do children need? Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/ basics/children/index.html.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). Childhood obesity facts. Retrieved from https:// www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/obesity/facts.html.
Cetinkalp, Z. K., & Turksoy, A. (2011). Goal orientation and self-efficacy as predictors of male adolescent soccer players’ motivation to participate. Social Behavior and Personality, 39, 925–934. https:// doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2011.39.7.925.
Chaddock-Heyman, L., Erickson, K. I., Kienzler, C., King, M., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Hillman, C. H., & Kramer, A. F. (2015). The role of aerobic fitness in cortical thickness and mathematics achievement in preadolescent children. PloS One, 10, e0134115. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134115.
Chang, Y. K., Laban, J. D., Gapin, J. I., & Etnier, J. L. (2012). The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis. Brain Research, 1453, 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.068.
Christ, T. J., Silberglitt, B., Yeo, S., & Cormier, D. (2010). Curriculum-based measurement of oral reading: an evaluation of growth rates and seasonal effects among students served in general and special education. School Psychology Review, 39, 447–462.
Cradock, A. L., Kawachi, I., Colditz, G. A., Gortmaker, S. L., & Buka, S. L. (2009). Neighborhood social cohesion and youth participation in physical activity in Chicago. Social Science & Medicine, 68, 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008. 10.028.
Crocker, P. R., Eklund, R. C., & Kowalski, K. C. (2000). Children’s physical activity and physical selfperceptions. Journal of Sports Science, 18, 383–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410050074313.
Davis, C. L., Tkacz, J. P., Tomporowski, P. D., & Bustamante, E. E. (2015). Independent associations of organized physical activity and weight status with children’s cognitive functioning: a matchedpairs design. Pediatric Exercise Science, 27, 477– 487. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2015-0044.
De Bruijn, A. G., Kostons, D. D., Van Der Fels, I. M., Visscher, C., Oosterlaan, J., Hartman, E., & Bosker, R. J. (2020). Effects of aerobic and cognitivelyengaging physical activity on academic skills: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38, 1806-1817. https://doi.org/10.10 80/02640414.2020.1756680.
Deforche, B., Van Dyck, D., Verloigne, M., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2010). Perceived social and physical environmental correlates of physical activity in older adolescents and the moderating effect of self-efficacy. Preventive Medicine, 50, S24–S29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.08.017.
de Greeff, J. W., Bosker, R. J., Oosterlaan, J., Visscher, C., & Hartman, E. (2018). Effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: a meta-analysis. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 21, 501–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jsams.2017.09.595.
de la Haye, K., Robins, G., Mohr, P., & Wilson, C. (2011). How physical activity shapes, and is shaped by, adolescent friendships. Social Science & Medicine, 73, 719–728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. socscimed.2011.06.023.
D’Haese, S., Cardon, G., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Deforche, B., De Meester, F., & Van Dyck, D. (2016). Changes in individual and social environmental characteristics in relation to changes in physical activity: a longitudinal study from primary to secondary school. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 23, 539–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12529-016-9545-z.
Digelidis, N., Papaioannou, A., Laparidis, K., & Christodoulidis, T. (2003). A one-year intervention in 7th grade physical education classes aiming to change motivational climate and attitudes toward exercise. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 4, 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00002-X.
Dishman, R. K., Dowda, M., McIver, K. L., Saunders, R. P., & Pate, R. R. (2017). Naturally occurring changes in social-cognitive factors modify change in physical activity during early adolescence. PLoS One, 12, e0172040. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172040.
Dishman, R. K., Motl, R. W., Saunders, R., Felton, G., Ward, D. S., Dowda, M., & Pate, R. R. (2004). Selfefficacy partially mediates the effect of a schoolbased physical-activity intervention among adolescent girls. Preventive Medicine, 38, 628–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-016-9545-z.
Donnelly, J. E., Greene, J. L., Gibson, C. A., Smith, B. K., Washburn, R. A., Sullivan, D. K., DuBose, K., Mayo, M. S., Schmelzle, K. H., Ryan, J. J., Jacobsen, D. J., & Williams, S. L. (2009). Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC): a randomized controlled trial to promote physical activity and diminish overweight and obesity in elementary school children. Preventive Medicine, 49, 336–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.07.022.
Donnelly, J. E., & Lambourne, K. (2011). Classroombased physical activity, cognition, and academic achievement. Preventive Medicine, 52, S36–S42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.021.
Eather, N., Morgan, P. J., & Lubans, D. R. (2013). Social support from teachers mediates physical activity behavior change in children participating in the Fit-4-Fun intervention. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10, 68. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-10-68.
Edwardson, C. L., & Gorely, T. (2010). Parental influences on different types and intensities of physical activity in youth: a systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 522–535. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.05.001.
Efrat, M. W. (2016). Understanding factors associated with children’s motivation to engage in recesstime physical activity. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 9, 77–86. https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v9i2.9618.
Enders, C. K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Erwin, H., Beets, M. W., Centeio, E., & Morrow Jr, J. R. (2014). Best practices and recommendations for increasing physical activity in youth. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 85, 27– 34. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2014.937197.
Fedewa, A. L., Abel, M., & Erwin, H. E. (2017). The effects of using stationary bicycle desks in classrooms on adolescents’ physical activity. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention, 10, 78– 89. https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.2016.1266457.
Fedewa, A. L., & Ahn, S. (2011). The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on children’s achievement and cognitive outcomes: a meta-analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82, 521–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599785.
Fedewa, A. L., Ahn, S., Erwin, H., & Davis, M. C. (2015). A randomized controlled design investigating the effects of classroom-based physical activity on children’s fluid intelligence and achievement. School Psychology International, 36, 135–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034314565424.
Fedewa, A. L., Fettrow, E., Erwin, H. E., & Ahn, S. (in press). Academic- and aerobic-based movement breaks: Are there differential effects on physical activity and achievement? Research Quarterly in Exercise and Sport.
Gage, N. A., Prykanowski, D., & Hirn, R. (2014). Increasing reliability of direct observation measurement approaches in emotional and/or behavioral disorders research using generalizability theory. Behavioral Disorders, 39, 228–244. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/019874291303900407.
Gage, N. A., Scott, T., Hirn, R., & MacSuga-Gage, A. S. (2017). The relationship between teachers’ implementation of classroom management practices and student behavior in elementary school. Behavioral Disorders, 43, 302–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742917714809.
Gao, Z. (2012). Urban Latino school children’s physical activity correlates and daily physical activity participation: a social cognitive approach. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 17, 542–550. https://doi.org /10.1080/13548506.2011.647699.
Gao, Z., Lee, A. M., Xiang, P., & Kosma, M. (2011). Effect of learning activity on students’ motivation, physical activity levels and effort/persistence. The ICHPER-SD Journal of Research in Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 6, 27–33.
Gao, Z., Xiang, P., Lee, A. M., & Harrison Jr, L. (2008). Self-efficacy and outcome expectancy in beginning weight training class: Their relations to students’ behavioral intention and actual behavior. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79, 92–100. https:// doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2008.10599464.
Geva, E., Galili, K., Katzir, T., & Shany, M. (2017). Learning novel words by ear or by eye? An advantage for lexical inferencing in listening versus reading narratives in fourth grade. Reading and Writing, 30, 1917–1944. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9759-8.
Glapa, A., Grzesiak, J., Laudanska-Krzeminska, I., Chin, M. K., Edginton, C. R., Mok, M. M. C., & Bronikowski, M. (2018). The impact of brain breaks classroom-based physical activities on attitudes toward physical activity in Polish school children in third to fifth grade. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15, 368. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15020368.
Glaser, D., & Hastings, R. H. (2011). An introduction to multilevel modeling for anesthesiologists. Anesthesia & Analgesia, 113, 877–887. https://doi. org/10.1213/ANE.0b013e3182198a01.
Goh, T. L., Hannon, J., Webster, C., Podlog, L., & Newton, M. (2016). Effects of a TAKE 10! classroombased physical activity intervention on third- to fifth-grade children’s on-task behavior. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 13, 712–718. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2015-0238.
Graham, J. W. (2003). Adding missing-data-relevant variables to FIML-based structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 10, 80–100. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM1001_4.
Haerens, L., Kirk, D., Cardon, G., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2011). Toward the development of a pedagogical model for health-based physical education. Quest, 63, 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/0 0336297.2011.10483684.
Hamilton, K., Warner, L. M., & Schwarzer, R. (2016). The role of self-efficacy and friend support on adolescent vigorous physical activity. Health Education & Behavior, 44, 175–181. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1090198116648266.
Haugen, T., Säfvenbom, R., & Ommundsen, Y. (2011). Physical activity and global self-worth: The role of physical self-esteem indices and gender. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 4, 49–56. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2011.07.001.
Hayes, A. F. (2006). A primer on multilevel modeling. Human Communication Research, 32, 385–410. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2006.00281.x.
Hayes, T., & McArdle, J. J. (2017). Should we impute or should we weight? Examining the performance of two CART-based techniques for addressing missing data in small sample research with nonnormal variables. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 115, 35–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2017.05.006.
Hintze, J. M. (2005). Psychometrics of direct observation. School Psychology Review, 34, 507–519. Hipp, J. R., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Local solutions in the estimation of growth mixture models. Psychological Methods, 11, 36–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082- 989X.11.1.36.
Hortz, B., & Petosa, R. (2006). Impact of the “Planning to be Active” leisure time physical exercise program on rural high school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 530–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.03.015.
Howell, K. W., & Hosp, J. L. (2014). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation. In P. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology (pp. 159–170), Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Howie, E. K., Schatz, J., & Pate, R. R. (2015). Acute effects of classroom exercise breaks on executive function and math performance: a dose-response study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, 217–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2015.1039892.
Huang, C., Gao, Z., Hannon, J. C., Schultz, B., Newton, M., & Jenson, W. (2012). Impact of an afterschool physical activity program on youth’s physical activity correlates and behavior. The ICHPER-SD Journal of Research in Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 7, 18–23.
Hudson, N., Scheff, J., Tarsha, M., & Cutting, L. E. (2016). Reading comprehension and executive function neurobiological findings. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 42, 23–29.
Huynh, H., & Feldt, L. S. (1976). Estimation of the Box correction for degrees of freedom from sample data in randomized block and split-plot designs. Journal of Educational Statistics, 1, 69–82. https:// doi.org/10.3102/10769986001001069.
Janssen, M., Chinapaw, M. J. M., Rauh, S. P., Toussaint, H. M., van Mechelen, W., & Verhagen, E. A. L. M. (2014). A short physical activity break from cognitive tasks increases selective attention in primary school children aged 10–11. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 7, 129–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2014.07.001.
Janz, K. F., Lutuchy, E. M., Wenthe, P., & Levy, S. M. (2008). Measuring activity in children and adolescents using self-report: PAQ-C and PAQ-A. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40, 767–772. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181620ed1.
Kahn, J. A., Huang, B., Gillman, M. W., Field, A. E., Austin, S. B., Colditz, G. A., & Frazier, A. L. (2008). Patterns and determinants of physical activity in US adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42, 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.11.143.
Kentucky Department of Education (2017). Kentucky school report card. Retrieved from https://applications.education.ky.gov/src/Accountability.aspx.
Kenyon, D. B., Kubik, M. Y., Davey, C., Sirard, J., & Fulkerson, J. A. (2012). Alternative high school students’ physical activity: Role of self-efficacy. American Journal of Health Behavior, 36, 300–310. https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.36.3.2.
Kercood, S., & Banda, D. R. (2012). The effects of added physical activity on performance during a listening comprehension task for students with and without attention problems. International Journal of Applied Educational Studies, 13, 19–32.
Kercood, S., & Grskovic, J. A. (2010). Reducing the effects of auditory and visual distraction on the math performances of students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 15, 1–11. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/19404150903524515.
Kibbe, D. L., Hackett, J., Hurley, M., McFarland, A., Schubert, K. G., Schultz, A., & Harris, S. (2011). Ten years of TAKE 10!®: Integrating physical activity with academic concepts in elementary school classrooms. Preventive Medicine, 52, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.025.
Kohl, H. W., & Cook, H. D. (Eds.) (2013). Educating the student body: Taking physical activity and physical education to school. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Komarraju, M., & Nadler, D. (2013). Self-efficacy and academic achievement: Why do implicit beliefs, goals, and effort regulation matter? Learning and Individual Differences, 25, 67–72. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.01.005.
Kreft, I., & de Leeuw, J. (1998). Introducing multilevel modeling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kwak, L., Kremers, S. P., Bergman, P., Ruiz, J. R., Rizzo, N. S., & Sjöström, M. (2009). Associations between physical activity, fitness, and academic achievement. Journal of Pediatrics, 155, 914–918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.06.019.
Lambourne, K., Hansen, D. M., Szabo, A. N., Lee, J., Herrmann, S. D., & Donnelly, J. E. (2013). Indirect and direct relations between aerobic fitness, physical activity, and academic achievement in elementary school students. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 6, 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.06.002.
Ledford, J. R., Lane, J. D., Shepley, C., & Kroll, S. M. (2016). Using teacher-implemented playground interventions to increase engagement, social behaviors, and physical activity for young children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 31, 163–173. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1088357614547892.
Lewis, T. J., Scott, T. M., Wehby, J. H., & Wills, H. P. (2014). Direct observation of teacher and student behavior in school settings: Trends, issues and future directions. Behavioral Disorders, 39, 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874291303900404.
Lodewyk, K. R., & Sullivan, P. (2016). Associations between anxiety, self-efficacy, and outcomes by gender and body size dissatisfaction during fitness in high school physical education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 21, 603–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2015.1095869.
Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., Callister, R., Collins, C. E., & Plotnikoff, R. C. (2010). Exploring the mechanisms of physical activity and dietary behavior change in the Program X intervention for adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47, 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.12.015.
Luke, S., Vail, C. O., & Ayres, K. M. (2014). Using antecedent physical activity to increase on-task behavior in young children. Exceptional Children, 80, 489–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914527241.
Ma, J. K., Le Mare, L., & Gurd, B. J. (2014). Four minutes of in-class high-intensity interval activity improves selective attention in 9- to 11-year olds. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 40, 238–244. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2014-0309.
Mahar, M. T. (2011). Impact of short bouts of physical activity on attention-to-task in elementary school children. Preventive Medicine, 52, 60–64. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.026.
Mahar, M. T., Murphy, S. K., Rowe, D. A., Golden, J., Shields, A. T., & Raedeke, T. D. (2006). Effects of a classroom-based program on physical activity and on-task behavior. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38, 2086–2094. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000235359.16685.a3.
Macdonald-Wallis, K., Jago, R., Page, A. S., Brockman, R., & Thompson, J. L. (2011). School-based friendship networks and children’s physical activity: a spatial analytical approach. Social Science & Medicine, 73, 6–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.04.018.
Marques, A., Santos, D. A., Hillman, C. H., & Sardinha, L. B. (2018). How does academic achievement relate to cardiorespiratory fitness, self-reported physical activity and objectively reported physical activity: a systematic review in children and adolescents aged 6-18 years. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52, 1039–1039. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-097361.
Maturo, C. C., & Cunningham, S. A. (2013). Influence of friends on children’s physical activity: a review. American Journal of Public Health, 103, e23–e38. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301366.
Mavilidi, M. F., Drew, R., Morgan, P. J., Lubans, D. R., Schmidt, M., & Riley, N. (2020). Effects of different types of classroom physical activity breaks on children’s on‐task behaviour, academic achievement and cognition. Acta Paediatrica, 109, 158–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.14892.
Mazza, G. L., Enders, C. K., & Ruehlman, L. S. (2015). Addressing item-level missing data: a comparison of proration and full information maximum likelihood estimation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 50, 504–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2015.1068157.
McAuley, E., & Mihalko, S. L. (1998). Measuring exercise-related self-efficacy. In J. L. Duda (Ed.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement (pp. 371–390). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
McKenna, J., & Parenti, M. (2017). Fidelity assessment to improve teacher instruction and school decision making. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 33, 331–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2017.131633.
Mura, G., Vellante, M., Nardi, A. E., Machado, S., & Carta, M. G. (2015). Effects of school-based physical activity interventions on cognition and academic achievement: a systematic review. CNS & Neurological Disorders – Drug Targets, 14, 1194–1208. https:// doi.org/10.2174/1871527315666151111121536.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2010). Mplus user’s guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. Muthén, B. O., & Satorra, A. (1995). Complex sample data in structural equation modeling. Sociological Methodology, 25, 267–316.
O’Donnell, C. L. (2008). Defining, conceptualizing, and measuring fidelity of implementation and its relationship to outcomes in K-12 curriculum intervention research. Review of Educational Research, 78, 33–84. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654307313793.
Ommundsen, Y., Klasson-Heggebø, L., & Anderssen, S. A. (2006). Psycho-social and environmental correlates of location-specific physical activity among 9- and 15-year-old Norwegian boys and girls: The European Youth Heart Study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 3, 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-3-32.
Owen, K. B., Parker, P. D., Van Zanden, B., MacMillan, F., Astell-Burt, T., & Lonsdale, C. (2016). Physical activity and school engagement in youth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Educational Psychologist, 51, 129–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2016.1151793.
Payne, J. D. (1971). The effects of reversing the order of verbal rating scales in a postal survey. Journal of the Market Research Society, 14, 30–44.
Pilcher, J. J., Morris, D. M., Bryant, S. A., Merritt, P. A., & Feigl, H. B. (2017). Decreasing sedentary behavior: Effects on academic performance, metacognition, and sleep. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 11, 219. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2017.00219.
Podnar, H., Novak, D., & Radman, I. (2018). Effects of a 5-minute classroom-based physical activity on on-task behaviour and physical activity levels. Kinesiology: International Journal of Fundamental and Applied Kinesiology, 50, 251–259. https://doi. org/10.26582/k.50.2.17.
Pontifex, M., Hillman, C., Fernhall, B. O., Thompson, K., & Valentini, T. (2009). The effect of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on working memory. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 41, 927–934. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181907d69.
Pontifex, M. B., Saliba, B. J., Raine, L. B., Picchietti, D. L., & Hillman, C. H. (2013). Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Pediatrics, 162, 543–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.08.036.
Pontifex, M. B., Scudder, M. R., Drollette, E. S., & Hillman, C. H. (2012). Fit and vigilant: The relationship between poorer aerobic fitness and failures in sustained attention during preadolescence. Neuropsychology, 26, 407–413. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028795.
Rapp, J. T., Colby-Dirksen, A. M., Michalski, D. N., Carroll, R. A., & Lindenberg, A. M. (2008). Detecting changes in simulated events using partial-interval recording and momentary time sampling. Behavioral Interventions, 23, 237–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.269.
Ray, T. D., & Henry, K. (2011). Self‐efficacy and physical activity in children with congenital heart disease: Is there a relationship? Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 16, 105–112. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1744-6155.2011.00282.x.
Responsive Classroom (2017, December 21). The Natural Learning Cycle. Retrieved from https://www. responsiveclassroom.org/natural-learning-cycle/ Resnick, B., & Jenkins, L. S. (2000). Testing the reliability and validity of the self-efficacy for exercise scale. Nursing Research, 49, 154–159. https://doi. org/10.1097/00006199-200005000-00007.
Riley, J. L., McKevitt, B. C., Shriver, M. D., & Allen, K. D. (2011). Increasing on-task behavior using teacher attention delivered on a fixed-time schedule. Journal of Behavioral Education, 20, 149–162. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10864-011-9132-y.
Roberts, V., Maddison, R., Magnusson, J., & Prapavessis, H. (2010). Adolescent physical activity: Does implementation intention have a role? Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 7, 497–507. https:// doi.org/10.1123/jpah.7.4.497.
Ross, S. E. T., Dowda, M., Beets, M. W., & Pate, R. R. (2013). Physical activity behavior and related characteristics of highly active eighth-grade girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52, 745–751. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.12.003.
Rozanski, G. M., Aqui, A., Sivakumaran, S., & Mansfield, A. (2018). Consumer wearable devices for activity monitoring among individuals after a stroke: a prospective comparison. JMIR Cardio, 2, e1. https://doi.org/10.2196/cardio.8199.
Ruiz, J. R., Ortega, F. B., Castillo, R., Martín-Matillas, M., Kwak, L., Vicente-Rodríguez, G., Noriega, J., Tercedor, P., Sjöström, M., Moreno, L. A., & AVENA Study Group (2010). Physical activity, fitness, weight status, and cognitive performance in adolescents. The Journal of Pediatrics, 157, 917–922. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.06.026.
Ryan, G. J., & Dzewaltowski, D. A. (2002). Comparing the relationships between different types of self-efficacy and physical activity in youth. Health Education & Behavior, 29, 491–504. https://doi. org/10.1177/109019810202900408.
Salvy, S. J., Roemmich, J. N., Bowker, J. C., Romero, N. D., Stadler, P. J., & Epstein, L. H. (2009). Effect of peers and friends on youth physical activity and motivation to be physically active. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34, 217–225. https://doi. org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsn071.
Sardinha, L. B., Marques, A., Minderico, C., Palmeira, A., Martins, S., Santos, D. A., & Ekelund, U. (2016). Longitudinal relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic achievement. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48, 839–844. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000830.
Shin, T., Davison, M. L., & Long, J. D. (2017). Maximum likelihood versus multiple imputation for missing data in small longitudinal samples with nonnormality. Psychological Methods, 22, 426. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000094.
Šidák, Z. (1967). Rectangular confidence regions for the means of multivariate normal distributions. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 62, 626–633. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1967.10482935.
Siegle, D., & McCoach, D. B. (2007). Increasing student mathematics self-efficacy through teacher training. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18, 278– 312. https://doi.org/10.4219/jaa-2007-35.3
Singh, A. S., Saliasi, E., van den Berg, V., Uijtdewilligen, L., de Groot, R. H., Jolles, J., Andersen, L. B., Bailey, R., Chang, Y. K., Diamond, A., Ericsson, I., Etnier, J. L., Fedewa, A. L., Hillman, C. H., McMorris, T., Pesce, C., Pühse, U., Tomporowski, P. D., & Chinapaw, M. J. M. (2019). Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children and adolescents: a novel combination of a systematic review and recommendations from an expert panel. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53, 640–647. https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098136.
Snelling, A., Belson, S. I., Beard, J., & Young, K. (2015). Associations between grades and physical activity and food choices: Results from YRBS from a large urban school district. Health Education, 115, 141– 151. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-03-2014-0028.
So, W. Y. (2012). Association between physical activity and academic performance in Korean adolescent students. BMC Public Health, 12, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-258.
Staiano, A. E., Abraham, A. A., & Calvert, S. L. (2012). Competitive versus cooperative exergame play for African American adolescents’ executive function skills: Short-term effects in a long-term training intervention. Developmental Psychology, 48, 337–342. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026938.
Strauss, R. S., Rodzilsky, D., Burack, G., & Colin, M. (2001). Psychosocial correlates of physical activity in healthy children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 155, 897–902. https://doi. org/10.1001/archpedi.155.8.897.
Stylianou, M., van der Mars, H., Kulinna, P. H., Adams, M. A., Mahar, M., & Amazeen, E. (2016). Before-school running/walking club and student physical activity levels: an efficacy study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 87, 342–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2016.1214665.
Verloigne, M., Cardon, G., De Craemer, M., D’Haese, S., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2016). Mediating effects of self-efficacy, benefits and barriers on the association between peer and parental factors and physical activity among adolescent girls with a lower educational level. PLoS One, 11, e0157216. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157216.
Verloigne, M., Veitch, J., Carver, A., Salmon, J., Cardon, G., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., & Timperio, A. (2014). Exploring associations between parental and peer variables, personal variables and physical activity among adolescents: a mediation analysis. BMC Public Health, 14, 966. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471- 2458-14-966.
Wang, L., & Zhang, Y. (2016). An extended version of the theory of planned behaviour: The role of self-efficacy and past behaviour in predicting the physical activity of Chinese adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34, 587–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1064149.
Webster, E. K., Wadsworth, D. D., & Robinson, L. E. (2015). Preschoolers’ time on-task and physical activity during a classroom activity break. Pediatric Exercise Science, 27, 160–167. https://doi.org/ 10.1123/pes.2014-0006.
Whitcomb, S., & Merrell, K. W. (2013). Behavioral, social, and emotional assessment of children and adolescents (4th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
World Health Organization (2016). Report of the Commission on Ending Childhood Obesity. Geneva: WHO Document Production Services.
Yao, C. A., & Rhodes, R. E. (2015). Parental correlates in child and adolescent physical activity: a metaanalysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 12, 10. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s12966-015-0163-y.
Yuan, K. H., Yang-Wallentin, F., & Bentler, P. M. (2012). ML versus MI for missing data with violation of distribution conditions. Sociological Methods & Research, 41, 598–629. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0049124112460373.
Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 663– 676. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312029003663.
