Academic Scientific JournalsPhysiological reactions to and recovery from acute stressors: the roles of chronic anxiety and stable resources
Keywords:
anxiety, skin temperature, job control, acute stress, muscle tensionAbstract
Background
Research has shown that employees subjected to acute stressors at work can suffer devastating repercussions. However, little is known about how employees who are experiencing ongoing chronic anxiety or have stable resources respond to acute stressors, particularly regarding their physiological responses to these situations. This study examines the physiological effects of an acute stressor when workers are already under chronic anxiety (i.e., cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety) or when they have a stable resource (i.e., job control).
Participants and procedure
Data were collected from 230 full-time employees working at three major oil companies in Brazil. First, demographic, anxiety, and job control measures were collected via questionnaire. Later, muscle tension, skin temperature, and heart rate were collected during a simulated task to assess the physiological response to stress. Hypotheses were tested by repeated measures general linear modeling.
Results
The findings indicated that when employees were exposed to an acute stressor, those with chronic cognitive and somatic anxiety exhibited more heightened physiological responses than those lower on chronic anxiety. Further, compared to those with low control, employees with stable, high control over their work experienced a lower physiological reaction to the acute stressor.
Conclusions
Chronic anxiety generates high levels of physiological arousal and hyper-responsiveness to acute environmental stressors. Also, employees possessing stable resources, such as job control, experience reduced physiological responsivity to an acute stressor.
Downloads
References
APA (2020). Stress in America 2020. A national mental health crisis. American Psychological Association.
Allen, A. P., Kennedy, P. J., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2014). Biological and psychological markers of stress in humans: Focus on the Trier Social Stress Test. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 38, 94–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.005
Arena, J. G., & Schwartz, M. S. (2003). Psychophysiological assessment and biofeedback baselines: a primer. In M. S. Schwartz & F. Andrasik (Eds.), Biofeedback: a practitioner’s guide (pp. 128–158). Guilford Press.
Barrett, L. F., Adolphs, R., Marsella, S., Martinez, A. M., & Pollak, S. D. (2019). Emotional expressions reconsidered: Challenges to inferring emotion from human facial movements. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 20, 1–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100619832930
Baum, A., Cohen, L., & Hall, M. (1993). Control and intrusive memories as possible determinants of chronic stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 274–286. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-199305000-00005
Betensky, J. D., & Contrada, R. J. (2010). Depressive symptoms, trait aggression, and cardiovascular reactivity to a laboratory stressor. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 39, 184–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-010-9176-6
Bianchi, E. R. F. (2004). Stress and coping among cardiovascular nurses: a survey in Brazil. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 25, 737–745. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840490486818
Boschi, H., Trenoweth, S., & Sheppard, Z. A. (2017). Stress at work: Factors associated with cognitive disorganisation among private sector professionals. Health Psychology Open, 4, 2055102917718376. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102917718376
Brosschot, J. F., Gerin, W., & Thayer, J. F. (2006). The perseverative cognition hypothesis: a review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60, 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.06.074
Cattell, R. B. (1966). Patterns of change: Measurement in relation to state dimension, trait change, liability, and process concepts. In R. B. Cattell (Ed.), Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (pp. 288–329). Rand McNally.
Cendales-Ayala, B., Useche, S. A., Gómez-Ortiz, V., & Bocarejo, J. P. (2017). Bus operators’ responses to job strain: an experimental test of the job demand-control model. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22, 518–527. https://doi.org/10.1037ocp0000040
Chatkoff, D. K., Maier, K. J., & Klein, C. (2010). Nonlinear associations between chronic stress and cardiovascular reactivity and recovery. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 77, 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.05.008
Chida, Y., & Hamer, M. (2008). Chronic psychosocial factors and acute physiological responses to laboratory-induced stress in healthy populations: a quantitative review of 30 years of investigations. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 829–885. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013342
Crosswell, A. D., & Lockwood, K. G. (2020). Best practices for stress measurement: How to measure psychological stress in health research. Health Psychology Open, 7, 2055102920933072. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102920933072
Czeisler, C. A., & Klerman, E. B. (1999). Circadian and sleep-dependent regulation of hormone release in humans. Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 54, 97–130.
Dienstbier, R. A. (1989). Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health. Psychological Review, 96, 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.96.1.84
Dufner, M., Arslan, R. C., Hagemeyer, B., Schönbrodt, F. D., & Denissen, J. J. (2015). Affective contingencies in the affiliative domain: Physiological assessment, associations with the affiliation motive, and prediction of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 662–676. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000025
DuPont, C. M., Wright, A. G., Manuck, S. B., Muldoon, M. F., Jennings, J. R., & Gianaros, P. J. (2021). Is stressor‐evoked cardiovascular reactivity a pathway linking positive and negative emotionality to preclinical cardiovascular disease risk? Psychophysiology, 58, e13741. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13741
Elfering, A., Grebner, S., Semmer, N. K., Kaiser-Freiburghaus, D., Lauper-Del Ponte, S., & Witschi, I. (2005). Chronic job stressors and job control: Effects on event-related coping success and well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 237–252. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X40088
Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1990). Stress and anxiety: Conceptual and assessment issues. Stress Medicine, 6, 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2460060310
Ensari, N., Kenworthy, J., Urban, L., Canales, C., Vasquez, E., Kim, D., & Miller, N. (2004). Negative affect and political sensitivity in crossed categorization: Self-reports versus EMG. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 7, 55–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302040399
Fleming, I., Baum, A., Davidson, L. M., Rectanus, E., & McArdle, S. (1987). Chronic stress as a factor in physiological reactivity to challenge. Health Psychology, 6, 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1037//0278-6133.6.3.221
Gallagher, S., O’Riordan, A., McMahon, G., & Creaven, A. M. (2018). Evaluating personality as a moderator of the association between life events stress and cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 126, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.02.009
Gallagher, V. C., & Meurs, J. A. (2015). Positive affectivity under work overload: Evidence of differentia outcomes. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 32, 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.1309
Ganster, D. C. (2005). Executive job demands: Suggestions from a stress and decision-making perspective. Academy of Management Review, 3, 492–502. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159140
Ganster, D. C., Crain, T. L., & Brossoit, R. M. (2018). Physiological measurement in the organizational sciences: a review and recommendations for future use. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 267–293. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104613
Ganster, D. C., & Rosen, C. C. (2013). Work stress and employee health: a multidisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 39, 1085–1122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206313475815
Hamer, M., & Steptoe, A. (2012). Cortisol responses to mental stress and incident hypertension in healthy men and women. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 97, E29–E34. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-2132
Hammer, L. B., Kossek, E. E., Yragui, N. L., Bodner, T. E., & Hanson, G. C. (2009). Development and validation of a multidimensional measure of family supportive supervisor behaviors (FSSB). Journal of Management, 35, 837–856. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206308328510
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.44.3.513
Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J. P., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 103–128. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640
Hobfoll, S. E., & Shirom, A. (2000). Conservation of resources theory: Application to stress and management in the workplace. In R. T. Golembiewski (Ed.), Handbook of organization behavior (pp. 57–81). Dekker.
Howell, D. C. (2001). Statistical methods for psychology. Wadsworth Publishing.
Jackson, B., Sellers, R., & Peterson, C. (2002). Pessimistic explanatory style moderates the effect of stress on physical illness. Personality and Individual al. Differences, 32, 567–573. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00061-7
Jorgensen, R. S., Johnson, B. T., Kolodziej, M. E., & Schreer, G. E. (1996). Elevated blood pressure and personality: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 293–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.293
Kain, J., & Jex, S. (2010). Karasek’s (1979) job demands-control model: a summary of current issues and recommendations for future research. In D. C. Ganster & P. L. Perrewé (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being: New developments in theoretical and conceptual approaches to job stress (pp. 237–268). Emerald Group Publishing.
Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285–307. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392498
Karlsen, H. R., Matejschek, F., Saksvik-Lehouillier, I., & Langvik, E. (2021). Anxiety as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease independent of depression: a narrative review of current status and conflicting findings. Health Psychology Open, 8, 2055102920 987462. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102920987462
Karney, B. R., Story, L. B., & Bradbury, T., N. (2005). Marriages in context: Interactions between chronic and acute stress among newlyweds. In T. A. Revenson, K. Kayser, & G. Bodenmann (Eds.), Couples coping with stress: Emerging perspectives on dyadic coping. Decade of behavior (pp. 13–32). American Psychological Association.
Kim, H. G., Cheon, E. J., Bai, D. S., Lee, Y. H., & Koo, B. H. (2018). Stress and heart rate variability: a metaanalysis and review of the literature. Psychiatry Investigation, 15, 235–245. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2017.08.17
Kogan, C. S., Stein, D. J., Maj, M., First, M. B., Emmelkamp, P. M., & Reed, G. M. (2016). The classification of anxiety and fear‐related disorders in the ICD‐11. Depression and Anxiety, 33, 1141–1154. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22530
Kozlowski, S. W., & Bell, B. S. (2006). Disentangling achievement orientation and goal setting: Effects on self-regulatory processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 900–916. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.900
Kühnel, A., Kroemer, N. B., Elbau, I. G., Czisch, M., Sämann, P. G., Walter, M., BeCome working group, & Binder, E. B. (2020). Psychosocial stress reactivity habituates following acute physiological stress. Human Brain Mapping, 41, 4010–4023. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25106
Kukde, M., & Neufeld, R. (1994). Facial electromyographic measures distinguish covert coping from stress response to stimulus threat. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 211–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90160-0
Kurtessis, J. N., Eisenberger, R., Ford, M. T., Buffardi, L. C., Stewart, K. A., & Adis, C. S. (2017). Perceived organizational support: a meta-analytic evaluation of organizational support theory. Journal of Management, 43, 1854–1884. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315575554
Kuykendall, L., & Tay, L. (2015). Employee subjective well-being and physiological functioning: an integrative model. Health Psychology Open, 2, 2055102915592090. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102915592090
Landsbergis, P. A. (2003). The changing organization of work and the safety and health of working people: a commentary. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45, 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1097/00043764-200301000-00014
Landbergis, P. A., Schnall, P. L., Belkic, K. L., Baker, D., Schwartz, J., & Pickering, T. G. (2001). Work stressors and cardiovascular disease. Work, 17, 191–208.
Lawler, K. A., & Schmied, L. A. (1987). The relationship of stress, type a behavior and powerlessness to physiological responses in female clerical workers. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 31, 555–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(87)90034-1
Lawler, K. A., Younger, J., Piferi, R., Billington, E., Jobe, R., Edmondson, K., & Jones, W. (2003). A change of heart: Cardiovascular correlates of forgiveness in response to interpersonal conflict. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 26, 373–393. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025771716686
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. McGraw-Hill.
Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Stress and emotion: a new synthesis. Springer.
Lehrer, P. M., & Woolfolk, R. L. (1982). Self-report assessment of anxiety: Somatic, cognitive, and behavioral modalities. Behavioral Assessment, 4, 167–177.
Lepore, S. J., Miles, H. J., & Levy, J. S. (1997). Relation of chronic and episodic stressors to psychological distress, reactivity, and health problems. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_3
Linden, W., Earle, T. L., Gerin, W., & Christenfeld, N. (1997). Physiological stress reactivity and recovery: Conceptual siblings separated at birth? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 42, 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3999(96)00240-1
Lovallo, W. R. (2015). Stress and health: Biological and psychological interactions. Sage Publications.
Lovelace, K. J., Manz, C. C., & Alves, J. C. (2007). Work stress and leadership development: The role of self-leadership, shared leadership, physical fitness and flow in managing demands and increasing job control. Human Resource Management Review, 17, 374–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.001
Matthews, K. A., Gump, B. B., & Owens, J. F. (2001). Chronic stress influences cardiovascular and neuroendocrine responses during acute stress and recovery, especially in men. Health Psychology, 20, 403–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.20.6.403
McEwen, B. S. (2006). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840, 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09546.x
McEwen, B. S., & Stellar, E. (1993). Stress and the individual: Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153, 2093–2101.
McGonagle, K. A., & Kessler, R. C. (1990). Chronic stress, acute stress, and depressive symptoms. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 681–706. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00931237
Meurs, J. A., & Perrewé, P. L. (2011). Cognitive activation theory of stress: an integrative theoretical approach to work stress. Journal of Management, 37, 1043–1068. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310387303
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 25–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.25
Moulton, D. (2003). Hospital first organization hit with workplace stress violations in Britain. The Medical Post, 39, 92.
Nabi, H., Kivimäki, M., Batty, G. D., Shipley, M. J., Britton, A., Brunner, E. J., Vahtera, J., Lemogne, C., Elbaz, A., & Singh-Manoux, A. (2013). Increased risk of coronary heart disease among individuals reporting adverse impact of stress on their health: The Whitehall II prospective cohort study. European Heart Journal, 34, 2697–2705. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht216
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2015). Essential elements of effective workplace programs. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/twh/essentials.html [accessed May 8, 2022]
O’Connor, D. B., Thayer, J. F., & Vedhara, K. (2021). Stress and health: a review of psychobiological processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 72, 663–688. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-062520-122331
Pace, T. W., Mletzko, T. C., Alagbe, O., Musselman, D. L., Nemeroff, C. B., Miller, A. H., & Heim, C. M. (2006). Increased stress-induced inflammatory responses in male patients with major depression and increased early life stress. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1630–1633. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.9.1630
Pham, T., Lau, Z. J., Chen, S. H., & Makowski, D. (2021). Heart rate variability in psychology: A review of HRV indices and an analysis tutorial. Sensors, 21, 3998. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21123998
Pole, N. (2007). The psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 725–746. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.5.725
Portela, L. F., Rotenberg, L., & Waissmann, W. (2004). Self-reported health and sleep complaints among nursing personnel working under 12 h night and day shifts. Chronobiology International, 21, 859–870. https://doi.org/10.1081/cbi-200038513
Pourmohammadi, S., & Maleki, A. (2020). Stress detection using ECG and EMG signals: a comprehensive study. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 193, 105482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmpb.2020.105482
Ree, M. J., French, D., MacLeod, C., & Locke, V. (2008). Distinguishing cognitive and somatic dimensions of state and trait anxiety: Development and validation of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA). Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465808004232
Roberts, K. E., Hart, T. A., & Eastwood, J. D. (2016). Factor structure and validity of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety. Psychological Assessment, 28, 134–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000155
Rosenthal, T. L., Montgomery, L. M., Shadish, W. R., Edwards, N. B., Hutcherson, H. W., Folette, W. C., & Lichstein, K. L. (1989). Two new, brief, practical stressor tasks for research purposes. Behavior Therapy, 20, 545–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(89)80133-9
Russell, E., Woods, S. A., & Banks, A. P. (2017). Examining conscientiousness as a key resource in resisting email interruptions: Implications for volatile resources and goal achievement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 90, 407–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12177
Ryan, D., & Watson, R. (2004). A healthier future. Occupational Health, 56, 20–21.
Saviola, F., Pappaianni, E., Monti, A., Grecucci, A., Jovicich, J., & De Pisapia, N. (2020). Trait and state anxiety are mapped differently in the human brain. Scientific Reports, 10, 11112. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-68008-z
Schaubroeck, J., & Ganster, D. C. (1993). Chronic demands and responsivity to challenge. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.1.73
Schwebel, D. C., & Suls, J. (1999). Cardiovascular reactivity and neuroticism: Results from a laboratory and controlled ambulatory stress protocol. Journal of Personality, 67, 67–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00048
Sekine, M., Chandola, T., Martikainen, P., Marmot, M., & Kagamimori, S. (2006). Socioeconomic inequalities in physical and mental functioning of Japanese civil servants: Explanations from work and family characteristics. Social Science and Medicine, 63, 430–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.01.020
Siennicka, A., Stromberg, A., Banasiak, W., Ponikowski, P., & Jankowska, E. A. (2015). Psychological aspects of heart failure – beyond depression, anxiety and quality of life. Health Psychology Report, 3, 99–114. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr.2015.49938
Soh, M., Zarola, A., Palaiou, K., & Furnham, A. (2016). Work-related well-being. Health Psychology Open, 3, 2055102916628380. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102916628380
Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C. (2006). Endocrinological processes associated with job stress: Catecholamine and cortisol responses to acute and chronić stressors. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Employee health, coping and methodologies: Research in occupational stress and well-being (Vol. 5, pp. 1–59). Elsevier Science.
Spector, P. E., Cooper, C. L., Poelmans, S., Allen, T. D., O’Driscoll, M., Shanchez, J. I., Siu, O. L., Dewe, P., Hart, P., & Lu, L. (2004). Across-national comparative study of work-family stressors, working hours, and well-being: China and Latin America versus the Anglo world. Personnel Psychology, 5, 119–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2004.tb02486.x
Spielberger, C. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (form Y). Mind Garden.
Spielberger, C. D. (1966). Theory and research on anxiety. In C. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research (pp. 481–492). Academic Press.
Spiers, C. (2004, November 29). Managing careers: Stress under pressure. The Lawyer.
Stacciarini, J., & Troccoli, B. (2004). Occupational stress and constructive thinking: Health and job satisfaction. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 46, 480–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03022.x
Steptoe, A., Feldman, G., Evans, O., & Perry, L. (1993). Control over work pace, job strain, and cardiovascular responses in middle-aged men. Journal of Hypertension, 11, 751–759. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004872-199307000-00011
Steptoe, A., Kunz-Ebrecht, S., Owen, N., Feldman, P. J., Rumley, A., Lowe, G. D., & Marmot, M. (2003). Influence of socioeconomic status and job control on plasma fibrinogen responses to acute mental stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000039755.23250.a7
Stern, M. J., Grampp, L. A., Huntley, C. J., Marquez, J., Keeran, K., Wildgoose, T., Curci, W. P., Rompogren, J., Wollman, S. C., Hall, M. G., Alhassoon, O. M., & Gevirtz, R. (2015). Relationship between cognitive performance and vagal functioning. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 40, 119–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-015-9282-0
Stueck, M., Rigotti, T., Roudini, J., Galindo, E., & Utami, D. S. (2016). Relationship between blood pressure and psychological features of experience and behaviour among teachers. Health Psychology Report, 4, 128–136. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr.2016.56853
Tetrick, L. E. (2002). Understanding individual health, organizational health, and the linkage between the two from both a positive health and an ill health perspective. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (Vol. 2, pp. 117–141). JAI Press/Elsevier Science.
Tetrick, L. E., & LaRocco, J. M. (1987). Understanding, prediction, and control as moderators of the relationship between perceived stress, satisfaction, and psychological well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 538–543. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.72.4.538
Thomsen, D. K., Mehlsen, M. Y., Hokland, M., Viidik, A., Olesen, F., Avlund, K., Munk, K., & Zachariae, R. (2004). Negative thoughts and health: Associations among rumination, immunity, and health care utilization in a young and elderly sample. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66, 363–371. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000127688.44363.fb
Turner, A. I., Smyth, N., Hall, S. J., Torres, S. J., Hussein, M., Jayasinghe, S. U., Bally, K., & Clow, A. J. (2020). Psychological stress reactivity and future health and disease outcomes: a systematic review of prospective evidence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 114, 104599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104599
Van Eck, M., Berkhof, H., Nicholson, N., & Sulon, J. (1996). The effects of perceived stress, traits mood states, and stressful daily events on salivary cortisol. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 447–458. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-199609000-00007
Viney, L. L., & Caputi, P. (2005). Using the origin and pawn, positive affect, CASPM, and cognitive anxiety content analysis scales in counseling research. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 38, 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2005.11909773
Wofford, J. C. (2001). Cognitive-affective stress response: Effects of individual stress propensity on physiological and psychological indicators of strain. Psychological Reports, 88, 768–784. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2001.88.3.768
Xie, J. L., & Schaubroeck, J. (2001). Bridging approaches and findings across diverse disciplines to improve job stress research. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Exploring theoretical mechanisms and perspectives: Research in occupational stress and well being (Vol. 1, pp. 1–53). JAI Press/Elsevier Science.
Yao, B. C., Meng, L. B., Hao, M. L., Zhang, Y. M., Gong, T., & Guo, Z. G. (2019). Chronic stress: a critical risk factor for atherosclerosis. Journal of International Medical Research, 47, 1429–1440. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300060519826820
Zellars, K. L., Meurs, J. A., Perrewé, P. L., Kacmar, C. J., & Rossi, A. M. (2009). Reacting to and recovering from a stressful situation: The negative affectivity-physiological arousal relationship. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14, 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013823
