Uniwersyteckie Czasopisma NaukoweRespiration rate during a stress task moderates neuroticism and perceived stress in older adults
Słowa kluczowe:
neuroticism, stress reactivity, perceived stress, respiration rate, physiological stressAbstrakt
Background
Research suggests that respiration rate is related to psychological factors such as neuroticism and perceived stress in addition to physiological factors. However, it is unclear how respiration rate during a laboratory stress task relates to the relationship between neuroticism and perceived stress.
Participants and procedure
This cross-sectional secondary analysis examined respiration rate during a stress task in moderating the relationship between neuroticism and perceived stress in a sample of generally healthy older adults (n = 64). Respiration data were collected during an auditory oddball paradigm and the Portland Arithmetic Stress Task (PAST), a laboratorybased cognitive stressor.
Results:
The results indicated that respiration rate during the PAST significantly moderated the relationship between neuroticism and perceived stress (p = .031), such that participants who exhibited a very low (–1.78 SD) respiration rate showed a non-significant relationship between neuroticism and perceived stress, whereas participants with average (mean; p < .001) and elevated respiration rates (+1 SD; p < .001) exhibited a significant positive relationship between neuroticism and perceived stress.
Conclusions:
These findings add to a body of literature suggesting that stress reactivity is an important link between personality factors and negative outcomes. However, this is the first study to our knowledge to examine the role of physiological stress reactivi-ty in buffering this relationship. The results suggest that individuals higher in neuroticism may attenuate the relationship between stress vulnerability and perceived stress through decreased physiological stress reactivity, particularly by exhibiting slow breathing during a stressor.
Downloads
Bibliografia
al’Absi, M., Nakajima, M., & Grabowski, J. (2013). Stress response dysregulation and stress-induced analgesia in nicotine dependent men and women. Biological Psychology, 93, 1–8. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.12.007.
Azeem, S. M. (2013). Conscientiousness, neuroticism and burnout among healthcare employees. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3, 467–477. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v3-i7/68.
Assaf, A. M. (2013). Stress-induced immune-related diseases and health outcomes of pharmacy students: a pilot study. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 21, 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2012.02.006.
Atchley, R., Klee, D., Memmott, T., Goodrich, E., Wahbeh, H., & Oken, B. (2016). Event-related potential correlates of mindfulness meditation competence. Neuroscience, 320, 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. neuroscience.2016.01.051.
Atchley, R., Ellingson, R., Klee, D., Memmott, T., & Oken, B. (2017). A cognitive stressor for eventrelated potential studies: the Portland arithmetic stress task. Stress, 20, 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2017.1335300.
Banjongrewadee, M., Wongpakaran, N., Wongpakaran, T., Pipanmekaporn, T., Punjasawadwong, Y., & Mueankwan, S. (2020). The role of perceived stress and cognitive function on the relationship between neuroticism and depression among the elderly: a structural equation model approach. BMC Psychiatry, 20, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12888-020-2440-9.
Bolger, N., & Zuckerman, A. (1995). A framework for studying personality in the stress process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 890–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.890.
Brewer, J. A., Sinha, R., Chen, J. A., Michalsen, R. N., Babuscio, T. A., Nich, C., Grier, A., Bergquist, K. L., Reis, D. L., Potenza, M. N., Carroll, K. M., & Rounsaville, B. J. (2009). Mindfulness training and stress reactivity in substance abuse: Results from a randomized, controlled stage I pilot study. Substance Abuse, 30, 306–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897070903250241.
Brodersen, L., & Lorenz, R. (2020). Perceived stress, physiological stress reactivity, and exit exam performance in a prelicensure Bachelor of Science nursing program. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship, 17, 20190121. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijnes-2019-0121.
Brown, E. G., Gallagher, S., & Creaven, A. M. (2018). Loneliness and acute stress reactivity: a systematic review of psychophysiological studies. Psychophysiology, 55, e13031. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13031.
Brummett, B. H., Boyle, S. H., Kuhn, C. M., Siegler, I. C., & Williams, R. B. (2008). Associations among central nervous system serotonergic function and neuroticism are moderated by gender. Biological Psychology, 78, 200–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biopsycho.2008.03.002.
Bullis, J. R., Bøe, H. J., Asnaani, A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2014). The benefits of being mindful: Trait mindfulness predicts less stress reactivity to suppression. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 45, 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jbtep.2013.07.006.
Carroll, D., Ginty, A. T., Whittaker, A. C., Lovallo, W. R., & de Rooij, S. R. (2017). The behavioural, cognitive, and neural corollaries of blunted cardiovascular and cortisol reactions to acute psychological stress. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 77, 74–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.02.02.5
Charles, L. E., Slaven, J. E., Mnatsakanova, A., Ma, C., Violanti, J. M., Fekedulegn, D., Andrew, M. E., Vila, B. J., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2011). Association of perceived stress with sleep duration and sleep quality in police officers. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 13, 229–241. https://doi. org/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22900457.
Clark, D. M., & Hemsley, D. R. (1982). The effects of hyperventilation; individual variability and its relation to personality. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 13, 41–47. https://doi. org/10.1016/0005-7916(82)90034-.9
Closa León, T., Nouwen, A., & Sheffield, D. (2007). Social support and individual variability in patterns of haemodynamic reactivity and recovery. Psychology & Health, 22, 473–492. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14768320600941806.
Cobb-Clark, D. A., & Schurer, S. (2012). The stability of big-five personality traits. Economics Letters, 115, 11–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2011. 11.015.
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Socical Behavior, 24, 385–396. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2136404.
Conard, M. A., & Matthews, R. A. (2008). Modeling the stress process: Personality eclipses dysfunctional cognitions and workload in predicting stress. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 171–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.07.023.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (2008). The revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R). In G. J. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment (Vol. 2, pp. 179–198). Sage Publications.
de Rooij, S. R., Schene, A. H., Phillips, D. I., & Roseboom, T. J. (2010). Depression and anxiety: Associations with biological and perceived stress reactivity to a psychological stress protocol in a middle-aged population. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 866–877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. psyneuen.2009.11.011.
Dedovic, K., Renwick, R., Mahani, N. K., Engert, V., Lupien, S. J., & Pruessner, J. C. (2005). The Montreal Imaging Stress Task: Using functional imaging to investigate the effects of perceiving and processing psychosocial stress in the human brain. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 30, 319–325.
Dishman, R. K., Nakamura, Y., Garcia, M. E., Thompson, R. W., Dunn, A. L., & Blair, S. N. (2000). Heart rate variability, trait anxiety, and perceived stress among physically fit men and women. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 37, 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00085-4.
Dunkley, D. M., Mandel, T., & Ma, D. (2014). Perfectionism, neuroticism, and daily stress reactivity and coping effectiveness 6 months and 3 years later. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61, 616–633. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000036.
Ebstrup, J. F., Eplov, L. F., Pisinger, C., & Jørgensen, T. (2011). Association between the five factor personality traits and perceived stress: Is the effect mediated by general self-efficacy? Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 24, 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10615806.2010.540012.
Evans, B. E., Stam, J., Huizink, A. C., Willemen, A. M., Westenberg, P. M., Branje, S., Meeus, W., Koot, H. M., & van Lier, P. A. C. (2016). Neuroticism and extraversion in relation to physiological stress reactivity during adolescence. Biological Psychology, 117, 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.03.002.
Eysenck, H. (1963). Biological basis of personality. Nature, 199, 1031–1034. https://doi.org/10.1038/ 1991031a0.
Eysenck, H., & Eysenck, M. W. (1987). Personality and individual differences. Plenum.
Fonareva, I., Amen, A. M., Ellingson, R. M., & Oken, B. S. (2012). Differences in stress-related ratings between research center and home environments in dementia caregivers using ecological momentary assessment. International Psychogeriatrics, 24, 90– 98. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1041610211001414.
Ford, B. Q., Karnilowicz, H. R., & Mauss, I. B. (2017). Understanding reappraisal as a multicomponent process: The psychological health benefits of attempting to use reappraisal depend on reappraisal success. Emotion, 17, 905–911. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/emo0000310.
Ford, B. Q., Lam, P., John, O. P., & Mauss, I. B. (2018). The psychological health benefits of accepting negative emotions and thoughts: Laboratory, diary, and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 115, 1075–1092. https:// doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000157.
Francis, L. J. (1996). The development of an abbreviated form of the revised Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (JEPQR-A) among 13-15 year olds. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 835–844. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00159-6.
Ginty, A. T., & Conklin, S. M. (2011). High perceived stress in relation to life events is associated with blunted cardiac reactivity. Biological Psychology, 86, 383–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho. 2011.01.002.
Goddard, R., Patton, W., & Creed, P. (2004). The importance and place of neuroticism in predicting burnout in employment service case managers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34, 282–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02548.x.
Grassmann, M., Vlemincx, E., von Leupoldt, A., Mittelstädt, J. M., & Van den Bergh, O. (2016). Respiratory changes in response to cognitive load: a systematic review. Neural Plasticity, 2016, 8146809. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8146809.
Grossman, P. (1983). Respiration, stress, and cardiovascular function. Psychophysiology, 20, 284–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1983.tb02156.x.
Gunthert, K. C., Cohen, L. H., & Armeli, S. (1999). The role of neuroticism in daily stress and coping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1087– 1100. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1087.
Harris, P. A., Taylor, R., Thielke, R., Payne, J., Gonzalez, N., & Conde, J. G. (2009). Research electronic data capture (REDCap) – a metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 42, 377–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2008.08.010.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: a regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Hoferichter, F., Raufelder, D., & Eid, M. (2014). The mediating role of socio-motivational relationships in the interplay of perceived stress, neuroticism, and test anxiety among adolescent students. Psychology in the Schools, 51, 736–752. https://doi. org/10.1002/pits.21778.
Huang, A. J., Grady, D., Mendes, W. B., Hernandez, C., Schembri, M., & Subak, L. L. (2019). A randomized controlled trial of device guided, slow-paced respiration in women with overactive bladder syndrome. Journal of Urology, 202, 787–794. https:// doi.org/10.1097/JU.0000000000000328.
Huovinen, E., Kaprio, J., & Koskenvuo, M. (2001). Asthma in relation to personality traits, life satisfaction, and stress: a prospective study among 11,000 adults. Allergy, 56, 971–977. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1398-9995.2001.00112.x.
Javorka, M., El-Hamad, F., Czippelova, B., Turianikova, Z., Krohova, J., Lazarova, Z., & Baumert, M. (2018). Role of respiration in the cardiovascular response to orthostatic and mental stress. American Journal of Physiology – Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 314, R761–R769. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00430.2017.
Jurczak, A., Szkup, M., Wieder-Huszla, S., Grzywacz, A., Samochowiec, A., Karakiewicz, B., Samochowiec, J., & Grochans, E. (2015). The assessment of the relationship between personality, the presence of the 5HTT and MAO-A polymorphisms, and the severity of climacteric and depressive symptoms in postmenopausal women. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 18, 613–621. https://doi. org/10.1007/s00737-015-0497-0.
Kim, S. E., Kim, H. N., Yun, Y. J., Heo, S. G., Cho, J., Kwon, M. J., Chang, Y., Ryu, S., Shin, H., Shin, C., Cho, N. H., Sung, Y. A., & Kim, H. L. (2017). Metaanalysis of genome-wide SNP- and pathwaybased associations for facets of neuroticism. Journal of Human Genetics, 62, 903–909. https://doi. org/10.1038/jhg.2017.61.
Klee, D., Colgan, D. D., Hanes, D., & Oken, B. (2020). The effects of an internet-based mindfulness meditation intervention on electrophysiological markers of attention. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 158, 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijpsycho.2020.10.002.
Kondratowicz, B., Godlewska-Werner, D., Połomski, P., & Khosla, M. (2021). Satisfaction with job and life and remote work in the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of perceived stress, self-efficacy and self-esteem. Current Issues in Personality Psychology. https://doi.org/10.5114/cipp.2021.108097.
Kühnel, A., Kroemer, N. B., Elbau, I. G., Czisch, M., Sämann, P. G., Walter, M., & Binder, E. B. (2020). Psychosocial stress reactivity habituates following acute physiological stress. Human Brain Mapping, 41, 4010–4023. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25106.
Kurdek, L. A. (1997). The link between facets of neuroticism and dimensions of relationship commitment: Evidence from gay, lesbian, and heterosexual couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 503–514. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.11.4.503.
Lazarides, C., Ward, E. B., Buss, C., Chen, W. P., Voelkle, M. C., Gillen, D. L., Wadhwa, P. D., & Entringer, S. (2020). Psychological stress and cortisol during pregnancy: an ecological momentary assessment (EMA)-based within- and between-person analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 121, 104848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104848.
Lindsay, E. K., Young, S., Smyth, J. M., Brown, K. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Acceptance lowers stress reactivity: Dismantling mindfulness training in a randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 87, 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. psyneuen.2017.09.015.
Lovallo, W. R., Enoch, M.-A., Acheson, A., Cohoon, A. J., Sorocco, K. H., Hodgkinson, C. A., Vincent, A. S., & Goldman, D. (2016). Early-life adversity interacts with FKBP5 genotypes: Altered working memory and cardiac stress reactivity in the Oklahoma Family Health Patterns Project. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41, 1724–1732. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.347.
Lum, L. C. (1975). Hyperventilation: The tip and the iceberg. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 19, 375– 383. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(75)90017-3.
McCrae, R. R. (1990). Controlling neuroticism in the measurement of stress. Stress Medicine, 6, 237–241. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2460060309.
Mohamadi Hasel, K., Besharat, M. A., Abdolhoseini, A., Alaei Nasab, S., & Niknam, S. (2013). Relationships of personality factors to perceived stress, depression, and oral lichen planus severity. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 286–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-012-9226-5.
Murberg, T. A., & Bru, E. (2004). School-related stress and psychosomatic symptoms among norwegian adolescents. School Psychology International, 25, 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034304046904.
Muthukrishnan, S., Jain, R., Kohli, S., & Batra, S. (2016). Effect of mindfulness meditation on perceived stress scores and autonomic function tests of pregnant Indian women. Journal of Clinical Diagnostic Research, 10, CC05–CC08. https://doi.org/10.7860/ JCDR/2016/16463.7679.
Naik, G. S., Gaur, G. S., & Pal, G. K. (2018). Effect of modified slow breathing exercise on perceived stress and basal cardiovascular parameters. International Journal of Yoga, 11, 53–58. https://doi. org/10.4103/ijoy.IJOY_41_16.
Ng, D. M., & Jeffery, R. W. (2003). Relationships between perceived stress and health behaviors in a sample of working adults. Health Psychology, 22, 638–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.22.6.638.
Nordfjærn, T., Bjerkeset, O., Moylan, S., Berk, M., & Gråwe, R. W. (2013). Clusters of personality traits and psychological symptoms associated with later benzodiazepine prescriptions in the general population: The HUNT Cohort Study. Addictive Behaviors, 38, 2575–2580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.06.010.
Obasi, E. M., Shirtcliff, E. A., Cavanagh, L., Ratliff, K. L., Pittman, D. M., & Brooks, J. J. (2017). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal reactivity to acute stress: an investigation into the roles of perceived stress and family resources. Prevention Science, 18, 923–931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0759-3.
O’Neal, W. T., Qureshi, W., Judd, S. E., Glasser, S. P., Ghazi, L., Pulley, L. V., Howard, V. J., Howard, G., & Soliman, E. Z. (2015). Perceived stress and atrial fibrillation: The reasons for geographic and racial differences in stroke study. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49, 802–808. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12160-015-9715-2.
Ormel, J., Bastiaansen, A., Riese, H., Bos, E. H., Servaas, M., Ellenbogen, M., Rosmalen, J. G. M., & Aleman, A. (2013). The biological and psychological basis of neuroticism: Current status and future directions. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37, 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.09.004.
Penz, M., Siegrist, J., Wekenborg, M. K., Rothe, N., Walther, A., & Kirschbaum, C. (2019). Effort-reward imbalance at work is associated with hair cortisol concentrations: Prospective evidence from the Dresden Burnout Study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 109, 104399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. psyneuen.2019.104399.
Pereira-Morales, A. J., Adan, A., & Forero, D. A. (2019). Perceived stress as a mediator of the relationship between neuroticism and depression and anxiety symptoms. Current Psychology, 38, 66–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9587-7.
Pierrehumbert, B., Torrisi, R., Glatz, N., Dimitrova, N., Heinrichs, M., & Halfon, O. (2009). The influence of attachment on perceived stress and cortisol response to acute stress in women sexually abused in childhood or adolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 924–938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. psyneuen.2009.01.006.
Pfeffer, J. M. (1978). The aetiology of the hyperventilation syndrome. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 30, 47–55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1159/000287282.
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.330.
Reynaud, E., El Khoury-Malhame, M., Rossier, J., Blin, O., & Khalfa, S. (2012). Neuroticism modifies psychophysiological responses to fearful films. PLoS One, 7, e32413. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032413 .R
oslan, N. S., Izhar, L. I., Feng, Y. X., Faye, I., Wei Ho, E. T., & Abdul Rahman, M. (2018). An investigation of physiological correlates of neuroticism during speaking task: a preliminary study. 2018 IEEE-EMBS Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Sciences (IECBES), 515–519. https://doi.org/ 10.1109/IECBES.2018.8626721.
Schneider, T. R. (2004). The role of neuroticism on psychological and physiological stress responses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 795–804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2004.04.005.
Seitz, R., Vracotas, N., Bechard-Evans, L., King, S., Abadi, S., Joober, R., Shah, J. L., Malla, A. K., & Pruessner, M. (2019). The Trier Social Stress Test in first episode psychosis patients: Impact of perceived stress, protective factors and childhood trauma. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 105, 155–163. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.01.010.
Shields, G. S., Sazma, M. A., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2016). The effects of acute stress on core executive functions: a meta-analysis and comparison with cortisol. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 651–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.038.
Shu, B. C., Chang, Y. Y., Lee, F. Y., Tzeng, D. S., Lin, H. Y., & Lung, F. W. (2007). Parental attachment, premorbid personality, and mental health in young males with hyperventilation syndrome. Psychiatry Research, 153, 163–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2006.05.006.
Smith, T. W., & Gallo, L. C. (2001). Personality traits as risk factors for physical illness. In A. Baum, T. Revenson, & J. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of health psychology (pp. 139–172). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Spodenkiewicz, M., Aigrain, J., Bourvis, N., Dubuisson, S., Chetouani, M., & Cohen, D. (2018). Distinguish self- and hetero-perceived stress through behavioral imaging and physiological features. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 82, 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.11.023.
Suls, J., & Bunde, J. (2005). Anger, anxiety, and depression as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: The problems and implications of overlapping affective dispositions. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 260–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.2.260.
Suls, J., & Martin, R. (2005). The daily life of the garden‐variety neurotic: Reactivity, stressor exposure, mood spillover, and maladaptive coping. Journal of Personality, 73, 1485–1510. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-6494.2005.00356.x.
Tang, Y. Y., Ma, Y., Fan, Y., Feng, H., Wang, J., Feng, S., Lu, Q., Hu, B., Lin, Y., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., Zhou, L., & Fan, M. (2009). Central and autonomic nervous system interaction is altered by short-term meditation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 8865– 8870. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0904031106.
Tipton, M. J., Harper, A., Paton, J. F. R., & Costello, J. T. (2017). The human ventilatory response to stress: Rate or depth? The Journal of Physiology, 595, 5729–5752. https://doi.org/10.1113/JP274596.
Turner, A. I., Smyth, N., Hall, S. J., Torres, S. J., Hussein, M., Jayasinghe, S. U., Ball, K., & Clow, A. J. (2020). Psychological stress reactivity and future health and disease outcomes: a systematic review of prospective evidence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 114, 104599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104599.
Üngür, G., & Karagözoğlu, C. (2021). Do personality traits have an impact on anxiety levels of athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic? Current Issues in Personality Psychology, 9, 246–257. https://doi. org/10.5114/cipp.2021.106138.
Wekenborg, M. K., von Dawans, B., Hill, L. K., Thayer, J. F., Penz, M., & Kirschbaum, C. (2019). Examining reactivity patterns in burnout and other indicators of chronic stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 106, 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.04.002.
Wheeler, A., & Wilkin, L. (2008). A study of the impact of yoga âsana on perceived stress, heart rate, and breathing rate. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 17, 57–63. https://doi.org/10.17761/ ijyt.17.1.c0607635w8887x75.
Wilson, R. S., Begeny, C. T., Boyle, P. A., Schneider, J. A., & Bennett, D. A. (2011). Vulnerability to stress, anxiety, and development of dementia in old age. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19, 327– 334. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e31820119da.
Woody, E. Z., & Szechtman, H. (2011). Adaptation to potential threat: The evolution, neurobiology, and psychopathology of the security motivation system. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1019–1033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev. 2010.08.003.
Wu, M., Zhou, R., Huang, Y., Wang, Q., Zhao, Y., & Liu, Y. (2014). Effects of menstrual cycle and neuroticism on emotional responses of healthy women. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 46, 58–68. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2014.00058.
Zannas, A. S., McQuoid, D. R., Steffens, D. C., Chrousos, G. P., & Taylor, W. D. (2012). Stressful life events, perceived stress, and 12-month course of geriatric depression: Direct effects and moderation by the 5-HTTLPR and COMT Val158Met polymorphisms. Stress, 15, 425–434. https://doi.org/10.3109/ 10253890.2011.634263.
Zuroff, D. C., Mongrain, M., & Santor, D. A. (2004). Conceptualizing and measuring personality vulnerability to depression: Comment on Coyne and Whiffen (1995). Psychological Bulletin, 130, 489–522. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.489.
