Uniwersyteckie Czasopisma NaukoweVerbal fluency and emotional expression in young women differing in their styles of coping with threatening stimuli
Słowa kluczowe:
verbal fluency, emotion, emotional expression, anxiety, coping styleAbstrakt
Background
In our study we decided to examine whether anxiety defined in personality terms and various emotional states, including the state of fear, measured in two ways – by means of subjective rating scales and by means of a more objective method, the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) developed by Ekman, Friesen, and Hager – would affect emotional verbal fluency understood as the number of words generated in answer to a question about the most liked and disliked trait of one’s personality.
Participants and procedure
The participants in the screening test were 570 students; in this sample, we selected 90 women and classified each of them into one of three groups – high-anxious individuals (n = 23), low-anxious individuals (n = 41), and repressors (n = 26) – distinguished based on the criteria proposed by Weinberger and colleagues. The research task, whose aim was to induce emotions, consisted in delivering a speech lasting a few minutes in front of an audience and a video camera.
Results
We obtained evidence of a significant association between emotional states and verbal fluency. Fear recognized by means of the FACS turned out to be the emotion that was the most strongly correlated with overall verbal fluency. We found no significant differences in fluency between individuals differing in terms of trait anxiety: low-anxious, high-anxious, and repressors.
Conclusions
The structure of results shows that the participants’ loquaciousness in the situation of speaking in front of an audience was more strongly influenced by currently experienced emotions than by the stable personality trait of anxiety.
Downloads
Bibliografia
Alm, P. A. (2004). Stuttering, emotions, and heart rate during anticipatory anxiety: A clinical review. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 29, 123–133.
Argaman, O. (2010). Linguistic markers and emotional intensity. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 39, 89–99.
Arnold, M. (1960). Emotion and personality. New York: Columbia University Press.
Asendorph, J. A., & Scherer, K. R. (1983). The discrepant repressor: Differentiation between low anxiety, high anxiety, and repression of anxiety by autonomic-facial-verbal patterns of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1334–1346.
Atchley, R. A., Hardi, S. S., & Enole, A. (2003). Hemispheric asymmetry in the processing of emotional content in word meanings: The effect of current and past depression. Brain and Language, 104, 33–41.
Bartolic, E., Basso, M., Schefft, B., Glauser, T., & Titanic-Schefft, M. (1999). Effects of experimentally-induced emotional states on frontal lobe cognitive task performance. Neuropsychologia, 37, 677–683.
Blanchard, D. C., & Blanchard, R. J. (2008). Defensive behaviors, fear, and anxiety. In R. J. Blanchard, D. C. Blanchard, G. Griebel, & D. Nutt (Eds.), Handbook of anxiety and fear (Vol. 17, pp. 63–79). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/S1569-7339(07)00005-7
Brackett, M. A., Ivacevic, Z., & Mayer, J. D. (2007). Emotional intelligence and emotional creativity. Journal of Personality, 75, 199–236. doi: 10.1111/ j.1467-6494.2007.00437.x
Calev, A., Nigal, D., & Chazan, S. (1989). Retrieval from semantic memory using meaningful and meaningless constructs by depressed, stable bipolar and manic patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 67–73.
Clark, L., Iversen, S. D., & Goodwin, G. M. (2001). The influence of positive and negative mood states on risk taking, verbal fluency, and salivary cortisol. Journal of Affective Disorders, 63, 179–187.
Cloninger, C. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Przybeck, T. R. (1993). A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 975–990.
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349–354.
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. A. (1964). The approval motive: Studies in evaluative dependence. New York: Wiley.
Daniluk, B., & Szepietowska, E. M. (2009). Zaburzenia pamięci w następstwie uszkodzeń mózgu [Memory disorders following brain injuries]. In Ł. Domańska & A. R. Borkowska (Eds.), Podstawy psychologii klinicznej [Foundations of clinical psychology] (pp. 261–279). Lublin: Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Press.
Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (1997a). Repression and repressors: Theoretical and experimental approaches. European Psychologist, 2, 235–246.
Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (1997b). Interpretive biases for one’s own behavior and physiology in high-trait-anxious individuals and repressors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 816–825.
Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (1999). Are repressors self-deceivers or other-deceivers? Cognition and Emotion, 13, 1–17.
Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (2001a). Manipulation of focus of attention and its effects on anxiety in high-anxious individuals and repressors. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 14, 173–191.
Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (2001b). Effects of focus of attention on experienced anxiety in high-anxious, low-anxious, defensive high-anxious, and repressor individuals. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 14, 285–300.
Donges, U. S., Jachmann, A., Kersting, A., Egloff, B., & Suslow, T. (2015). Attachment anxiety and implicit self-concept of neuroticism: Associations in women but not men. Personality & Individual Differences, 72, 208–213. doi: 10.1016/j. paid.2014.08.043
Draheim, S. E. (2001). System Kodowania Ruchów Twarzy (FACS) jako metoda mierzenia zachowań mimicznych: Procedura – rzetelność – zastosowania [Facial Action Coding System (FACS) as a method of measuring facial expressions: procedure – reliability – applications]. Psychologia – Etologia – Genetyka, 3/4, 97–113.
Ekman. P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124–129. doi:10.1037/h0030377
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). Facial Action Coding System (FACS): A technique for the measurement of facial actions. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & Ancoli, S. (1980). Facial signs of emotional experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1125–1134.
Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & Hager, J. C. (2002), Facial Action Coding System. The manual on CD ROM. Salt Lake City, UT: Research Nexus Division of Network Information Research Corporation.
Ekman, P., & Rosenberg, E. L. (Eds.) (1997). What the face reveals. Basic and applied studies of spontaneous expression. Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS). New York: Oxford University Press.
Eysenck, M. W. (2000). A Cognitive Approach to Trait Anxiety. European Journal of Personality, 14, 463476.
Ezrati-Vinacour, R., & Levin, I. (2004). The relationship between anxiety and stuttering: A multidimensional approach. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 29, 135–148.
Gawda, B. (2007). Ekspresja pojęć afektywnych w narracjach osób z antyspołeczną osobowością [The expression of affective concepts in narratives of individuals with antisocial personality disorder]. Lublin: Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Press. Gawda, B., & Szepietowska E. M. (2015). Treść pojęć Radość i Strach w okresie dorosłości – fluencja werbalna jako narzędzie opisu pojęć emocjonalnych [The content of the concepts of Happiness and Fear in adulthood: Verbal fluency as an instrument for describing emotional concepts]. Psychologia Rozwojowa, 20, 57–72.
Gawda, B., & Szepietowska E. M. (2012). Nastrój depresyjny a fluencja słowna [Depressive mood and verbal fluency]. Psychologia – Etologia – Genetyka, 25, 25–40.
Gawda, B., & Szepietowska E. M. (2011). Fluencja słowna i jej uwarunkowania [Verbal fluency and its determinants]. Psychologia – Etologia – Genetyka, 23, 63–90.
Gyurak, A., Goodkind, M. S., Kramer, J. H., Miller, B. L., & Levenson, R. W. (2012). Executive functions and the down-regulation and up-regulation of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 26, 103–118.
Hebb, D. O. (1946a). Emotion in man and animal: An analysis of the intuitive processes of recognition. Psychological Review, 53, 88–106.
Hebb, D. O. (1946b). On the nature of fear. Psychological Review, 53, 259–276.
Jasielska, A. (2002). Emocje a płeć. Analiza w kontekście twórczości emocjonalnej [Emotion and sex: An analysis in the context of emotional creativity]. In A. Hulewska, A. Jasielska, & M. Ziarko (Eds.), Interdyscyplinarne studia nad płcią. Od polaryzacji płciowej do polaryzacji rodzajowej [Interdisciplinary studies on sex: From sex polarization to gender polarization]. Poznań: Humaniora Foundation Press.
Jasielska, A. (2007). Zastosowanie analizy transkrypcji do pomiaru inteligencji emocjonalnej [The application of transcription analysis to emotional intelligence measurement]. Psychologia. Edukacja i Społeczeństwo, 4, 29–45.
Kasl, S. V., & Mahl, G. F. (1965). The relationship of disturbances and hesitations in spontaneous speech to anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 425–433.
Keogh, E. (2004). Investigating invariance in the factorial structure of the anxiety sensitivity index across adult men and women. Journal of Personality Assessment, 83, 153–160.
Kocowski, T. (2010). Stres-potrzeby-twórczość [Stress – needs – creativity]. Poznań: Polskie Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk.
Mahl, G. F. (1956). Disturbances and silences in the patient’s speech in psychotherapy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 53, 1–15.
Mahl, G. F. (1987a). Everyday Disturbances of Speech. New York: Plenum Press.
Mahl, G. F. (1987b). Explorations in Nonverbal and Vocal Behavior. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 487–495. doi: 10.1016/00057967(90)90135-6
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.
Morreale, S. P., Spitzberg, B. H., & Barge J. K. (2001). Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge and Skills. Wadsworth: Thomson Learning Inc.
Myers, L. B. (2000). Identifying repressors: A methodological issue for health psychology. Psychology and Health, 15, 205–214.
Myers, L. B. (2010). The importance of the repressive coping style: Findings from 30 years of research. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 30, 3–17.
Noël, V. A., Lewis, K., Francis, S. E., & Mezo, P. G. (2013). Relationships between the multiple dimensions of anxiety sensitivity and symptoms of anxiety and depression in men and women. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 13, 333–353.
Obrębska, M. (2013). Styl mówienia w schizofrenii [Speaking style in schizophrenia]. Poznań: Adam Mickiewicz University Press.
Obrębska, M., & Kleka, P. (2016). Gadatliwość kobiet: prawda czy stereotyp? [Women’s talkativeness: Truth or stereotype?] In J. Mampe, H. Makurat, Ł. Owczinnikowa, & F. Marzouk (Eds.), Socjolingwistyczne badania w teorii i praktyce. Ujęcie interdyscyplinarne [The theory and practice of sociolinguistic research: An interdisciplinary perspective] (pp. 77–86). Gdańsk: University of Gdansk Press.
Obrębska, M., & Zinczuk-Zielazna, J. (2016). Style radzenia sobie z bodźcami zagrażającymi a częstość użycia partykuł w wypowiedziach jako wskaźnik lęku w sytuacji społecznej ekspozycji [Styles of coping with threatening stimuli and the frequency of particle use in utterances as an indicator of anxiety in situations of social exposure]. Socjolingwistyka, 30, 261–275.
Obrębska, M., & Obrębski, T. (2007). Lexical and Grammatical Analysis of Schizophrenic Patients’ Language: A Preliminary Report. Psychology of Language and Communication, 11, 63–72.
Perkins, A. M., Inchley-Mort, S. L., Pickering, A. D., Corr, P. J., & Burgess, A. P. (2012). A facial expression for anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 910–924.
Reiss, S., Peterson, R. A., Gursky, D. M., & McNally, R. J. (1986). Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency and the predictions of fearfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24, 1–8. doi: 10.1016/00057967(86)90143-9
Reynolds, A., Richards, G., de la Iglesia, B., & Rayward-Smith, V. (1992). Clustering rules: A comparison of partitioning and hierarchical clustering algorithms. Journal of Mathematical Modelling and Algorithms, 5, 475–504. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10852-005-9022-1.
Rosen, V. M., & Engle, R. W. (1997). The role of working-memory capacity in retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 211–227.
Schwartz S., Baldo J., Graves R., & Brugger P. (2003). Pervasive influence of semantics in letter and category fluency: A multidimensional approach. Brain and Language, 87, 400–411.
Siuta, J. (1989). Zmienna aprobaty społecznej w badaniach nad zjawiskami hipnotycznymi [The social approval variable in studies of hypnotic phenomena]. Zeszyty Naukowe UJ, 5, 131–141.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R. E., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory: STAI (FormY2). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Steiger, J. H. (1980). Tests for comparing elements of a correlation matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 245–251.
Strelau, J. (2006). Psychologia różnic indywidualnych [The psychology of individual differences]. Warsaw: Scholar.
Szepietowska, E. M., & Gawda, B. (2011). Ścieżkami fluencji werbalnej [Following the paths of verbal fluency]. Lublin: Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Press.
Tabert, M. H., Peery, S., Borod, J., Schmidt, M., Grunwald, I., & Sliwinski, M. (2001). Lexical emotional expression across the life span: Quantitative and qualitative analyses of word list generation tasks. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15, 531–550.
Tsakanikos, E., & Claridge, G. (2005). More words, less words: Verbal fluency as a function of “positive” and “negative” schizotypy. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 705–713.
Weinberger, D. A., & Davidson, M. N. (1994). Styles of inhibiting emotional expression: Distinguishing repressive coping from impression management. Journal of Personality, 62, 587–613.
Weinberger, D. A., Schwartz, G. E., & Davidson, R. J. (1979). Low-anxious, high-anxious, and repressive coping styles: Psychometric patterns and behavioral and physiological responses to stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88, 369–380.
Wrześniewski, K., Sosnowski, T., & Matusik, D. (2002). Inwentarz Stanu i Cechy Lęku STAI. [State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)]. Warsaw: Psychological Test Laboratory of the Polish Psychological Association.
Zimbardo, P. G., Mahl, G. F., & Barnard, J. W. (1963). The measurement of speech disturbance in anxious children. Journal of Speech & Hearing Disorders, 28, 362–370.
Zinczuk-Zielazna, J., & Obrębska, M. (2016). Styles of coping and the level of dogmatism in utterance texts as an indicator of anxiety in situations of social exposure. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 47, 402–411.
