Academic Scientific JournalsMeiobenthic assemblage of the grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) along the Saudi Arabian coast of the Red Sea with emphasis on free-living nematodes
Keywords:
Meiofauna, nematodes, distribution, diversity, mangrove, Red Sea, Saudi ArabiaAbstract
Spatial variability in the population density of meiofauna and the assemblage of free-living marine nematodes was studied at 20 mangrove sites located along the Saudi Arabian coast of the Red Sea. The total abundance of meiofauna varied between the locations and ranged from 119 to 1380 ind. 10 cm−2. A total of seven main taxa were recorded. Nematodes dominated (64.3%) in all sediment samples. They were followed by harpacticoid copepods (13.2%) and polychaetes (12.9%) with significant differences in their density between the locations surveyed (p < 0.001). The Pearson correlation analysis showed significant positive correlations between the sand fraction and nematodes, harpacticoid copepods and turbellarians. Twenty-five genera of free-living nematodes belonging to 15 families were recorded in the study area. Microlaimidae were the most abundant family, while Xyalidae, Desomodridae and Chromidoridae were the most diverse families. Microlaimus, Halalaimus and Terschellingia were the most frequent genera. ANOSIM values obtained for the distribution of different nematode genera in various habitats showed no significant differences. Feeding types of different nematode genera were also documented and the epistrate feeders along with the deposit feeders were found to be the common feeding types in the present study.
Downloads
References
Abdullah, M.M. & Lee, S.Y. (2017). Structure of mangrowe meiofaunal assemblages associated with local sediment conditions in subtropical eastern Australia. Estuar. Coast. Shelf. Sci. 198: 438–449. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2016.10.039.
Abrantes, K. & Sheaves, M. (2009). Food web structure in a near-pristine mangrove area of the Australian Wet Tropics. Estuar. Coast. Shelf. Sci. 82(4): 597–607. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2009.02.021.
Ali, M.A.S., Krishnamurthy, K. & Jeyaseelan, M.J.P. (1983). Energy ows through the benthic ecosystem of the mangroves with special reference to nematodes. Mahasagar Bull. Nat. Inst. Oceanogr. 16(3): 317–325.
Almahasheer, H., Serrano, O., Duarte, C.M., Arias-Ortiz, A., Masque, P. et al. (2017). Low Carbon sink capacity of Red Sea mangroves. Sci. Rep. 7(1): 9700. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10424-9.
Alongi, D.M. & Christofferson, P. (1992). Benthic infauna and organism-sediment relations in a shallow, tropical coastal area: influence of out welled mangrove detritus and physical disturbance. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 81(3): 229–245.
Alongi, D.M. (1987a). Inter-estuary variation and intertidal zonation of free-living nematode communities in tropical mangrove systems. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 40: 103–114.
Alongi, D.M. (1987b). Intertidal zonation and seasonality of meiobenthos in tropical mangrove estuaries. Mar. Biol. 95(3): 447–458. DOI: 10.1007/BF00409574.
Alongi, D.M. (1987c). The influence of mangrove-derived tannins on intertidal meiobenthos in tropical estuaries. Oecologia 71: 537–540. DOI: 10.1007/BF00379293.
Alongi, D.M. (1989). The role of soft-bottom benthic communities in tropical mangrove and coral reef ecosystems. Crit. Rev. Aquat. Sci. 1: 243–280.
Alongi, D.M. (1990a). The ecology of tropical soft-bottom benthic ecosystems. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 28: 381–496.
Alongi, D.M. (1990b). Community dynamics of free-living nematodes in some tropical mangrove and sandflat habitats. Bull. Mar. Sci. 46: 358–373.
Anderson, J.G. & Meadows, P.S. (1978). Microenvironments in marine sediments. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section B. Biol. Sci. 76(1–3): 1–16. DOI: 10.1017/S0269727000002761.
Ansari, K.G.M.T. & Bhadury, P. (2017). An updated species checklist for free-living marine nematodes from the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem, Sundarbans. Zootaxa 4290(1): 177–191. DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4290.1.11.
Ansari, Z.A., Sreepada, R.A., Matondkar, S.G.P. & Parulekar, A.H. (1993). Meiofauna stratification in relation to microbial food in a tropical mangrove mudflat. Trop. Ecol. 34: 63–75.
Armenteros, M., Martın, I., Williams, J.P., Creagh, B., Gonzalez-Sanson, G. et al. (2006). Spatial and temporal variations of meiofaunal communities from the western sector of the Gulf of Batabano Cuba. I. Mangrove Systems. Estuaries and Coasts 29: 124–132. DOI: 10.1007/BF02784704.
Austen, M.C. (2004). Natural nematode communities are useful tools to address ecological and applied questions. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives 2: 1–17.
Barbier, E.B., Hacker, S.D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E.W., Stier, A.C. et al. (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecol. Monogr. 81(2): 169–193. DOI: 10.1890/10-1510.1.
Barnes, N., Bamber, R.N., Moncrieff, C.B., Sheader, M. & Ferrero, T.J. (2008). Meiofauna in closed coastal saline lagoons in the United Kingdom: Structure and biodiversity of the nematode assemblage. Estuar. Coast. Shelf. Sci. 79(2): 328–340. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2008.03.017.
Bhadury, P., Mondal, N., Ansari, K.G.M.T., Philip, P., Pitale, R. et al. (2015). Checklist of free-living marine nematodes from intertidal sites along the central west coast of India. Check List 11(2): 1605. DOI: 10.15560/11.2.1605.
Braeckman, U., Van Colen, C., Soetaert, K., Vincx, M. & Vanaverbeke, J. (2011). Contrasting macrobenthic activities differentially affect nematode density and diversity in a shallow subtidal marine sediment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 422: 179–191.
Chinnadurai, G. & Fernando, O. (2007). Meiofauna of mangroves of the southeast coast of India with special reference to the free-living marine nematodes assemblage. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 72: 329–336. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2006.11.004.
Chinnadurai, G. & Fernando, O.J. (2006). Meiobenthos of Cochin mangroves (Southwest coast of India) with special emphasis on free-living marine nematode assemblages. Russ. J. Nematol. 64(2): 127–137.
Clarke, K. & Gorley, R. (2006). Primer v6: User Manual/Tutorial. Primer-E Ltd, Plymouth.
Coull, B.C. & Bell, S.S. (1979). Perspectives of marine meiofaunal ecology. In R.J. Livingston (Eds.), Ecological Processes in Coastal and Marine Systems (pp. 189–216). Marine Science, Vol 10. Springer, Boston, MA. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-9146-7_10.
Coull, B.C. (1999). Role of meiofauna in estuarine soft-bottom habitats. Austral Ecol. 24(4): 327–343. DOI: 10.1046/j.1442-9993.1999.00979.x.
Della Patrona, L., Marchand, C., Hubas, C., Molnar, N., Deborde, J. et al. (2016). Meiofauna distribution in a mangrove forest exposed to shrimp farm effluents (New Caledonia). Mar. Environ. Res. 119: 100–113. DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.05.028.
Dernie, K.M., Kaiser, M.J., Richardson, E.A. & Warwick, R.M. (2003). Recovery of soft sediment communities and habitats following physical disturbance. J. Exp. Mar. Bio. Ecol. 285: 415–434. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-0981(02)00541-5.
Dye, A.H. & Lasiak, T.A. (1986). Microbenthos and fiddler crabs: trophic interaction in a tropical mangrove sediment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 32 (2–3): 259–264.
Dye, A.H. (1978). An ecophysiological study of the meiofauna of the Swartkops Estuary. 2. The meiofauna: composition, distribution, seasonal fluctuation and biomass. Afr. Zool. 13: 19–32.
Dye, A.H. (1983a). Composition and seasonal fluctuations of meiofauna in a southern African mangrove estuary. Mar. Biol. 73 (2): 165–170. DOI: 10.1007/BF00406884.
Dye, A.H. (1983b). Vertical and horizontal distribution of meiofauna in mangrove sediments in Transkei Southern Africa. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 16: 591–598. DOI: 10.1016/0272-7714(83)90073-2.
Edwards, F.J. (1987). Climate and oceanography. In A.J. Edwards & S.M. Head (Eds.), Key Environments–Red Sea (pp. 45–68). International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. IV Series.
El-Serehy, H.A., Al-Misned, F.A. & Al-Rasheid, K.A. (2015). Population fluctuation and vertical distribution of meiofauna in the Red Sea interstitial environment. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 22: 459–465. DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2015.02.018.
Ferrero, T.J., Debenham, N.J. & Lambshead, P.J.D. (2008). The nematodes of the Thames estuary: Assemblage structure and biodiversity, with a test of Attrill's linear model. Estuar. Coast. Shelf. Sci. 79(3): 409–418. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2008.04.014.
Fonseca, V.G., Carvalho, G.R., Nichols, B., Quince, C., Johnson, H.F. et al. (2014). Metagenetic analysis of patterns of distribution and diversity of marine meiobenthic eukaryotes. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 23: 1293–1302. DOI: 10.1111/geb.12223.
Gee, J.M. & Somerfield, P.J. (1997). Do mangrove diversity and leaf litter decay promote meiofaunal diversity? J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 218(1): 13–33. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-0981(97)00065-8.
Gee, J.M. (1989). An ecological and economic review of meiofauna as food for fish. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 96: 243–261. DOI: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1989.tb02259.x.
Gheskiere, T., Vincx, M., Urban-Malinga, B., Rossano, C., Scapini, F. et al. (2005). Nematodes from wave-dominated sandy beaches: diversity, zonation patterns and testing of the isocommunities concept. Estuar. Coast. Shelf. Sci. 62(1–2): 365–375. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2004.09.024.
Giere, O. (2013). Meiobenthology: the microscopic fauna in aquatic sediments. Springer Science & Business Media.
Gwyther, J. (2000). Meiofauna in phytal-based and sedimentary habitats of a temperate mangrove ecosystem – a preliminary survey. Proc. R. Soc. Vic. 112: 137–151.
Hanafy, M.H., Mohammed, D.A. & Ahmad, A.I. (2011). Seasonal distribution of the littoral interstitial meiofauna in the northern Red Sea, Egypt. Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol. Fish. 15(2): 35–51.
Heip, C., Vincx, M. & Vranken, G. (1985). The ecology of marine nematodes. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 23: 399–489.
Hodda, M., Nicholas, W.L. (1985). Meiofauna associated with mangroves in the Hunter River estuary and Fullerton Cove, south-eastern Australia. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 36: 41–50. DOI: 10.1071/MF9850041.
Hodda, M. & Nicholas, W.L. (1986). Temporal changes in litoral meiofauna from the Hunter River Estuary. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 37: 729–741. DOI: 10.1071/MF9860729.
Hopper, B.E., Fell, J.W. & Cefalu, R.C. (1973). Effect of temperature on life cycles of nematodes associated with the mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) detrital system. Mar. Biol. 23(4): 293–296. DOI: 10.1007/BF00389336.
Hsieh, H.L. (1995). Spatial and temporal patterns of polychaete communities in a subtropical mangrove swamp: influences of sediment and microhabitat. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 127(1–3): 157–167. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2016.10.039.
Hulings, N.C. (1975). Spatial and quantitative distribution of sand beach meiofauna in the northern Gulf of Aqaba. Rapp. Comm. Int. Mer. Medit. 23: 163–181.
Jensen, P. (1987). Feeding ecology of free-living aquatic nematodes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 35: 187–196.
Kathiresan, K. & Bingham, B.L. (2001). Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 40: 81–251. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2881(01)40003-4.
Khalil, A.S. (2015). Mangroves of the Red Sea. In: N.M. Rasul & I.C. Stewart (Eds.), The Red Sea (pp. 585–597). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Kumary, K.A. (2008). Diversity of meiobenthic nematodes in the Poonthura estuary (Southwest coast of India). Mar. Biol. Ass. India 50: 23–28.
Lalana-Rueda, R. & Gosselck, F. (1986). Investigations of the benthos of mangrove coastal lagoons in Southern Cuba. Int. Revue. Hydrobiol. 71: 779–794. DOI: 10.1002/iroh.19860710605.
McIntyre, A.D. & Murison, D.J. (1973). The meiofauna of a flatfish nursery ground. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 53(1): 93–118. DOI: 10.1017/S0025315400056666.
Mirto, S., La Rosa, T., Gambi, C., Danovaro, R. & Mazzola, A. (2002). Nematode community response to fish-farm impact in the western Mediterranean. Environ. Pollut. 116(2): 203–214. DOI: 10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00140-3.
Moens, T. & Vincx, M. (1997). Observations on the feeding ecology of estuarine nematodes. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 77(1): 211–227. DOI: 10.1017/S0025315400033889.
Mokievsky, V.O., Tchesunov, A.V., Udalov, A.A. & Toan, N.D. (2011). Quantitative distribution of meiobenthos and the structure of the free-living nematode community of the mangrove intertidal zone in Nha Trang Bay (Vietnam) in the South China Sea. Russ. J. Mar. Biol. 37(4): 272–283. DOI: 10.1134/S1063074011040109.
Morgans, J.F.C. (1956). Notes on the analysis of shallow-water soft substrata. J. Anim. Ecol. 25(2): 367–387.
Morrisey, D.J., Swales, A., Dittmann, S., Morrison, M.A., Lovelock, C.E. et al. (2010). The ecology and management of temperate mangroves. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 48: 43–160.
Nagelkerken, I.S.J.M., Blaber, S.J.M., Bouillon, S., Green, P., Haywood, M. et al. (2008). The habitat function of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna: a review. Aquat. Bot. 89(2): 155–185. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.007.
Nascimento, F.J., Näslund, J. & Elmgren, R. (2012). Meiofauna enhances organic matter mineralization in soft sediment ecosystems. Limnol. Oceanogr. 57(1): 338–346. DOI: 10.4319/lo.2012.57.1.0338.
Netto, S. & Gallucci, F. (2003). Meiofauna and macrofauna communities in a mangrove from the Island of Santa Catarina, South Brazil. Hydrobiologia 505: 159–170. DOI: 10.1023/B:HYDR.0000007304.22992.b2.
Nicholas, W., Elek, J., Stewart, A. & Marples, T. (1991). The nematode fauna of a temperate Australian mangrowe mudflat; its population density, diversity and distribution. Hydrobiologia 209: 13–27. DOI: 10.1007/BF00006714.
Ólafsson, E. & Moore, C. (1990). Control of meiobenthic abundance by macroepifauna in a subtidal muddy habitat. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 65(3): 241–249.
Ólafsson, E. (1995). Meiobenthos in mangrove areas in eastern Africa with emphasis on assemblage structure of free living marine nematodes. Hydrobiologia 312(1): 47–57. DOI: 10.1007/BF00018886.
Ólafsson, E., Carlstrom, S. & Nadro, S. (2000). Meiobenthos of hypersaline tropical mangrove sediment in relation to spring tide undulation. Hydrobiologia 426(1): 57–64. DOI: 10.1023/A:1003992211656.
Pagliosa, P.R. (2005). Another diet of worms: the applicability of polychaete feeding guilds as a useful conceptual framework and biological variable. Mar. Ecol. 26(3–4): 246–254. DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0485.2005.00065.x.
Parker, J.G. (1983). A comparison of methods used for the measurement of organic matter in marine sediment. Chem. Ecol. 1(3): 201–210. DOI: 10.1080/02757548308070802.
Pinto, T., Austen, M., Warwick, R., Somerfield, P., Esteves, A. et al. (2013). Nematode diversity in different microhabitats in mangrove region. Mar. Ecol. 34(3): 257–268. DOI: 10.1111/maec.12011.
Platt, H.M. & Warwick, R.M. (1983). Free living marine nematodes. Part 1: British enoplids. Pictorial key to world genera and notes for the identification of British species. Cambridge University Press, for the Linnean Society of London and the Estuarine and Brackish-water Sciences Association.
Platt, H.M. & Warwick, R.M. (1988). Free-living marine nematodes. Part II: British chromadorids. Brill/Backhuys, for the Linnean Society of London and the Estuarine and Brackish-Water Sciences Association.
Polidoro, B.A., Carpenter, K.E., Collins, L., Duke, N.C., Ellison, A.M. et al. (2010). The loss of species: mangrove extinction risk and geographic areas of global concern. PloS ONE 5(4): e10095. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010095.
Pusceddu, A., Gambi, C., Corinaldesi, C., Scopa, M. & Danovaro, R. (2014). Relationships between meiofaunal biodiversity and prokaryotic heterotrophic production in different tropical habitats and oceanic regions. PLoS ONE 9(3): e91056. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091056.
Richards, L.A. (1954). Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. Washington: United States Salinity Laboratory, 1954. 160p. USDA. Agriculture Handbook, 60.
Riera, P. & Hubas, C. (2003). Trophic ecology of nematodes from various microhabitats of the Roscoff Aber Bay (France): importance of stranded macroalgae evidenced through 13C and 15N. Mari. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 260: 151–159.
Robertson, A. & Duke, N. (1987). Mangrove as nursery sites: comparisons of the abundance and species composition of fish and crustaceans in mangroves and other nearshore habitats in tropical Australia. Mar. Biol. 96(2): 196–205. DOI: 10.1007/BF00427019.
Robertson, A. & Duke, N. (1990). Mangrove fish communities in tropical Queensland, Australia: spatial and temporal patterns in densities, biomass and community structure. Mar. Biol. 104(3): 369–379. DOI: 10.1007/BF01314339.
Rodrìguez, J.G., Lastra, M. & López, J. (2003). Meiofauna distribution along a gradient of sandy beaches in northern Spain. Estuar. Coast Shelf Sci. 58: 63–69.
Sabeel, A.O.R. (2015). Variation in distribution of Sudanese mangroves and their ecological signi¬ cance for benthic fauna. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
Sabeel, R.A.O. & Vanreusel, A. (2015). Potential impact of mangrove clearance on biomass and biomass size spectra of nematode along the Sudanese Red Sea coast. Mar. Environ. Res. 103: 46–55. DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2014.11.003.
Sahoo, G., Suchiang, S.R. & Ansari, Z.A. (2013). Meiofaunamangrove interaction: a pilot study from a tropical mangrove habitat. Cah. Biol. Mar. 54: 349–358.
Saifullah, S. (1996). Mangrove ecosystem of Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast – An overview. J. KAU Mar. Sci. 7: 263–270.
Sajan, S., Joydas, T.V. & Damodaran, R. (2010). Meiofauna of the western continental shelf of India, Arabian Sea. Estuar. Coast. Shelf. Sci. 86: 665–674. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2009.11.034.
Sarkar, S.K., Bhattacharya, A., Giri, S., Battacharya, B., Sarkar, D. et al. (2005). Spatiotemporal variation in benthic polychaetes (Annelida) and relationships with environmental variables in a tropical estuary. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 13(1): 55–67. DOI: 10.1007/s11273-003-5067-y.
Sasekumar, A. (1994). Meiofauna of a mangrove shore on the west coast of peninsular Malaysia. Ra es Bull. Zool. 42(4): 901–915.
Schratzberger, M. & Ingels, J. (2018). Meiofauna matters: the roles of meiofauna in benthic ecosystems. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 502: 12–25. DOI: 10.1016/j.jembe.2017.01.007.
Semprucci, F., Balsamo, M. & Frontalini, F. (2014). The nematode assemblage of a coastal lagoon (Lake Varano, southern Italy): ecology and biodiversity patterns. Scientia Marina 78(4): 579–588. DOI: 10.3989/scimar.04018.02A.
Semprucci, F., Colantoni, P., Baldelli, G., Rocchi, M. & Balsamo, M. (2010). The distribution of meiofauna on back-reef sandy platforms in the Maldives (Indian Ocean). Mar. Ecol. 31(4): 592–607. DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0485.2010.00383.x.
Semprucci, F., Sbrocca, C., Rocchi, M. & Balsamo, M. (2015). Temporal changes of the meiofaunal assemblage as a tool for the assessment of the ecological quality status. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 95(2): 247–254. DOI: 10.1017/S0025315414001271.
Somerfield, P.J. & Warwick, R.M. (1996). Meiofauna in marine pollution monitoring programmes. A laboratory manual. Directorate of Fisheries Research (MAFF), Lowestoft (UK). 71.
Somerfield, P., Gee, J. & Aryuthaka, C. (1998). Meiofaunal communities in a Malaysian mangrove forest. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 78(3): 717–732. DOI: 10.1017/S0025315400044738.
Steyaert, M., Garner, N., van Gansbeke, D. & Vincx, M. (1999). Nematode communities from the North Sea: environmental controls on species diversity and vertical distribution within the sediment. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K.79(2): 253–264.
Thilagavathi, B., Das, B., Saravanakumar, A. & Raja, K. (2011). Benthic meiofaunal composition and community in the Sethukuda mangrove area and adjacent open sea, east coast of India. Ocean Sci. J. 46(2): 63–72. DOI: 10.1007/s12601-011-0006-y.
Tietjen, J.H. & Alongi, D.M. (1990). Population growth and effects of nematodes on nutrient regeneration and bacteria associated with mangrove detritus from northeastern Queensland (Australia). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 68(1–2): 169–180.
Tolhurst, T.J., Defew, E.C. & Dye, A. (2010). Lack of correlation between surface macrofauna, meiofauna, erosion threshold and biogeochemical properties of sediments within an intertidal mudflat and mangrove forest. Hydrobiologia 652(1): 1–13. DOI: 10.1007/s10750-010-0311-y.
Vanaverbeke, J., Gheskiere, T., Steyaert, M. & Vincx, M. (2002). Nematode assemblages from subtidal sandbanks in the Southern Bight of the North Sea: effect of small sedimentological differences. J. Sea Res. 48(3): 197–207. DOI: 10.1016/S1385-1101(02)00165-X.
Vanaverbeke, J., Merckx, B., Degraer, S. & Vincx, M. (2011). Sediment-related distribution patterns of nematodes and macrofauna: Two sides of the benthic coin? Mar. Environ. Res. 71(1): 31–40. DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2010.09.006.
Vanhove, S., Vincx, M., Vangansbeke, W., Gijselinck, W. & Schram, D. (1992). The meiobenthos of five mangrowe vegetation types in Gazi Bay, Kenya. Hydrobiologia 247: 99–108. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-3288-8_10.
Warwick, R.M., Platt, H.M. & Somerfield, P.J. (1998). Free living marine nematodes. Part III. British Monhysterida. Synopses of the British fauna no 53. Field Studies Council, Shrewsbury.
Wieser, W. (1953). Die Beziehung zwischen Mundhöhlengestalt, Ernährungsweise und Vorkommen bei freilebenden marinen Nematoden. Ark. Zool. 4(2): 439–484.
Woodward, G. (2010). Integrative ecology: from molecules to ecosystems (Vol. 43). Academic Press.
Xuan, Q.N., Vanreusel, A., Thanh, N.V. & Smol, N. (2007). Biodiversity of meiofauna in the intertidal Khe Nhan mudflat, Can Gio mangrove forest, Vietnam with special emphasis on free living nematodes. Ocean Sci. J. 42(3): 135–152. DOI: 10.1007/BF03020918.
Zhou, H. (2001). Effects of leaf litter addition on meiofaunal colonization of azoic sediments in a subtropical mangrowe in Hong Kong. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 256(1): 99–121. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-0981(00)00310-5.
